Balancing Test in UK Law

Balancing Test in UK Law The Ultimate Balancing Test This chapter will consider how the UK courts must find a balance between the competing Convention rights of Article 8 and Article 10. In the context of their relationship between the privacy of such individuals and the press, as these two essential and fundamental rights frequently come into conflict and must be analysed and balanced against each other. Whilst referring to the ultimate balance as recognised in Strasbourg courts and how it has aided in developing the ultimate balance in UK courts. As such, both rights start off as equal, this can be reflected, for example, in Resolution 1165 of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 1998, where paragraph 11 specifically mentions that, The Assembly reaffirms the importance of every persons right to privacy, and the right to freedom of expression, as fundamental to a democratic society. These rights are neither absolute nor in any hierarchical order, since they are of equal value in a democratic society.[1] The conflicting rights As can be seen by the evidence presented in the previous chapters, the balance between the right to privacy and freedom of expression is one which has influenced much debate, in Strasbourg and in the UK, and as such, they are often found competing against one another, even though they are of equal value. Incorporated within the debate is the view that both rights are completely contradicting, as privacy is strongly founded upon secrecy whilst expression most always involves exposure, thus this is when friction will almost always be formed between the two Convention rights. Consequently, the friction created by these rights are central to the conflict the courts have been facing, following the incorporation of the HRA and ECHR, much of this friction was formed with the conflicting rights of Article 8 and 10 at the very core. These rights at first glance appear to stand independent, although the expectation of these rights can however become apparent, thus creating the issue of why the right to privacy and freedom of expression are often in conflict. Furthermore, these two rights have arguably been fought most by two parties, the first party, uses Article 8 which gives a person right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.[2] Phillipson identifies that any individual has a right as a human being to have control over what information a person chooses to disclose to another, and that when the government or the media acquire information without your consent, and publish the information, it violates a persons fundamental right to control such information about themselves.[3] Therefore, it makes sense that the second party whom fights for their rights conveyed in Article 10 are most commonly the media, this right states that Everyone has the right to freedom of expression.[ 4] This right includes the freedom to receive and communicate information, thus it would make sense that the second party that fights for their rights are the media as the media focus highly on communicating information to the public, as such, they are quite commonly known as being the public watch dog. [5] Hence, it could be said that the media are therefore obligated to publish what they believe the public want to know, and it is there that the conflict between the right to privacy and freedom of expression arise; when the media publish information that a person or persons wanted to keep private. [6] Harris has expressed the opinion that the balance between the two rights is a grey area in law, and that there will always be tension between the two, however, it needs to remain that way to differentiate between definitively private information and information that some may see as private, but instead may be important to be covered by freedom of expression.[7] It has been stated by Lord Goff that freedom of expression has existed in this country perhaps as long, if not longer, than it has existed in any other country in the world as such, this statement was maintained by Lord Hoffman when he mentioned that A right of privacy may be a legitimate exception to freedom of speech (but) there is no question of balancing freedom of speech against other interests. It is a trump card which always wins.[8] These statements highlight that there once was a strong preference in the courts in favour of freedom of expression. While there is no contrary public interest recognised and protected by the law, the press are free to publish anything they like. Although, when freedom of expression comes into conflict with another interest protected by law, the question of whether there is a sufficient public interest in the publication to justify limitation of the conflicting right comes into play. However, there is, and will always be a strong desire to know the truth, with many agreeing that freedom of expression is fundamental towards a healthy democracy. Although, this freedom can be essential, it can however, come with responsibilities that the media will often disregard. Thus, the right to freedom of expression stops when it infringes on the privacy of those involved unless, by keeping such things private, would cause a concern for society, as such public interest. Yet, the issues of which stories are of public interest is a rather grey area in the UK, partly because the divergence between what the public has a right to know and what the public desires to know. In theory, it can be said that everyone is entitled to both right; right to privacy and right to freedom of expression, as far as they do not infringe on anyone elses rights. Though, this is quite frankly impossible, and as such can only be done by balancing the two rights. The balancing of the two competing rights English courts have been influenced by the balance recognised in the Strasbourg courts, and have attempted to reconcile the fundamental underlying values advanced by the right to privacy and freedom of expression through such legal frameworks, as such the balancing of these two competing rights are clearly demonstrated in countless cases. In executing the ultimate balancing test, the courts consider the claimants right to privacy as expressed in Article 8 of the ECHR, which provides that everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.[9] Equally, the content of the publishers freedom of expressions rights is established from Article 10 of the ECHR, which safeguards the freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers.[10] With both rights being qualified, they may be restricted under paragraph two, provided that the interference is prescribe d by the law, and pursues a legitimate aim and what should be well known by now, is that it is necessary in a democratic society and is proportionate response to the aim pursued. The balance as recognised in Strasbourg Privacy actions involve the conflict of two rights, most commonly, freedom of expression. The Article 10 jurisprudence discloses that, even though freedom of expression constitutes once of the essential foundations of a democratic society, a hierarchy of various types of expression have been developed by the ECtHR, which can be recognised in the previous chapter. These can be political speech, artistic expression and commercial expression,[11] as such this is where the conflict begins. The conflict could begin with Article 8, in regards that the State has failed to appropriately protect the applicants right to privacy or it could begin with Article 10, in regards to whether the State has infringed the applicants right to freedom of expression by imposing sanctions aimed at protecting a persons right to privacy.[12] Thus, courts must consider the conflicting rights on the presumption that both Articles are of equal value, rather than considering that the conflicting right is an excep tion to the principal right, as such the Convention ensures that any restriction that is places on either right is closely scrutinised and a balance is achieved between them. The cases before Von Hannover did not endorse the methods of balancing Article 8 and 10, however, following on from this caseit can be recognised that neither Article takes precedence over one another. In the first Von Hannover case, as stated in the previous chapter the court had held that Princess Carolines Article 8 rights had been infringed by the publication of photographs showing her with her children and with her husband. She brought several actions in Germany for an injunction to prevent further publications of the various photographs that were taken, the court however stated that the matter was an event in contemporary society and of general interest to the public. Princess Caroline argued that none of the photographs, regardless of the articles that followed with them debated to such public interest in a democratic society, but were there only to satisfy the curiosity of such a reader. As such, this is important as an individual will be more easily able to establish a reasonable expectation of privacy than say an individual in the public eye. Although, in Von Hannover (No.2)[13]this case involved the publication of a photograph of Princess Caroline and her husband during a skiing holiday, to illustrate the ill health of her father, Monacos Head of State. The Court maintained the position that whilst a private individual unknown to the public may claim particular protection of his or her right to private life, the same is not true of public figures[14] Although, they did modify it definition of public figures to also include persons whom could just be simply well known to the public. Consequently, in line with the courts findings, the press could legitimately report on how the Princes children prepared to accept family duties during the time of the Princes illness, such as going on skiing holiday. In the view of the court, the photos in question, considered in the light of the accompanying articles, did contribute, at least to some degree, to a debate of general interest.[15] Additionally, the photographs themselves were n ot offensive to the extent that their prohibition was justified.[16] The court in this case, emphasised that both Articles are of equal value and the margin of appreciation should be the same in both cases, and as such, they saw fit to develop criteria which other states should follow when considering how to develop a balance between the two rights, these being: Whether the information contributes to a debate of general interest How well known the person concerned is and the subject matter of the report The prior conduct of the individual concerned Content, form and consequences of the publication; and The circumstances in which the photos were taken When applying, the criteria set out above, in the second case, the Court had found that Germany has changed its approach to privacy considering the first Von Hannover judgement, in regards to mentioning that a public interest in being entertained generally was less important than an individuals right to privacy. As such, the courts attempted to narrow the focus when attempting to balance the two equal but competing rights of privacy and freedom of expression. The balancing test as recognised by UK courts Decisions are necessarily fact or case sensitive, given that the Court is required to balance the fundamental rights (right to privacy and freedom of expression) which are often in conflict, the general approach which should be adopted and the principles which apply to these competing rights are now well-established. This main reason for this is that the law is Strasbourg-led. Although the rights do have conflicting aims, their aim was not to confuse the courts in making their rulings but to create a difference between everyones right to privacy whilst allowing them certain freedoms. The approach towards balancing these competing rights will be clearly demonstrated in countless cases. Firstly, it should be mentioned that, Section 12(4) of the HRA enjoins domestic courts to have particular regard to the importance of the Convention right to freedom of expression when they are considering whether to grant relief. Which may indicate that Article 10 is given priority when balancing it against others rights, such as privacy, however, the courts understand that such an interpretation would result in a conflict between Article 8 and 10, thus lacking with the consistency with the Convention rights. Consequently, the case of Douglas v Hello! Ltd,[17] Lord Justice Sedley, recognised that in order to achieve such compatibility with the Convention, when balance the two rights, courts would have to treat the two rights as having equal value, The European Court of Human Rights has always recognised the high importance of free media of communication in a democracy, but its jurisprudence does not and could not consistently with the Convention itself give Article 10(1) the presumptive priority which is given. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] Everything will ultimately depend on the proper balance between privacy and publicity in the situation facing the court.[18] The Campbell case refined this balancing test, as the House of Lords were face with conflict between privacy and freedom of expression when a tabloid took and published photographs of a supermodel as she exited a Narcotics Anonymous meeting the house was divided in the result with a narrow 3 -2 majority deciding that her privacy rights ought to prevail over freedom of expression in the circumstances of this case. The House of Lords considered what type of information was regarded as confidential and stated that there must be some interest of a private nature that a claimant wished to protect and that the test is whether a person place in similar circumstances would find the disclosure offensive. [19] Fenwick and Phillipson have termed this approach to proportionality, the parallel analysis as it requires the court to consider whether the justifications in favour of protecting speech support the limit on privacy and then to consider, whether the justification in favour of privacy sup port the limit proposed on freedom of expression.[20] Without this parallel analysis, there is a danger that one right would prevail. However, the courts have been conducting various tests to determine the privacy of such certain information, long before Campbell founded the balancing exercise which the UK courts now use. Formerly, a limited right of privacy was established in the case of Coco v AN Clark Engineers Ltd[21] which came under the already established right of breach of confidence. The above approach in Campbell has subsequently been endorsed, and as such, it has been established in the UK that not one Article is supposed to take superiority over the other, as Lord Steyn summarised in the case of Re S (A Child),[22] First, neither article has precedence as such over the other. Secondly the values under the two articles are in conflict, an intense focus on the comparative importance of the specific rights being claimed in the individual case is necessary. Thirdly, the justification for interfering with each right must be taken into account. Finally, the proportionality test must be applied to each. For convenience I will call this the ultimate balancing test.[23] The approach towards balancing these competing rights can be clearly demonstrated in countless cases in the UK courts and through Strasbourg, which become more apparent when the extent of which public interest exists for the disclosure of private information. The case law produced after the introduction of the HRA is ever expanding, with recent concerns coming to light over the issue that the courts have developed a law of privacy and made the necessary balance between the two rights in each case, rather than the Parliament. [24] Thus, these following cases explore the progressively divergent approaches the courts have taken in interpreting and applying the legal tests that have been established. How the courts use the balancing test The decisions made in the cases of Campbell, Douglas and Von Hannover are considered landmark with the considerations that have occurred in the area of privacy over the years. As these cases strengthened the recognition of privacy and re-defined the notion of public interest to exclude mere curiosity and unhealthy interest in individuals lives.[25] It is however, what was decided in these cases that have influenced the way court approach cases that concern balancing the right to privacy with freedom of expression. Consequently, the courts must now balance the two conflicting interests by applying the principles mentioned above to the facts of the case, whilst considering the legitimacy of the expectation of privacy, the level of intrusion and the importance of any public interest in publication. Which allows for the UK courts to mirror the principles that have been laid down by the ECHR and ensure that any interference with privacy and freedom of expression are necessary and proporti onate.[26] Prior to the introduction of the HRA, the right to privacy was relatively underdeveloped, however, much has changed as it can be said that the protection of private lives and private information is one of the fastest-developing areas of the law as judges use the Human Rights Act [27] An early case of the balancing act after the introduction of the HRA was in A v B[28], where the Court held that a claimants public profile generates legitimate public interest in his or her personal life, which strengthens the medias freedom of expression claims. As such, A v B defined public figures as all those who play a role in public life, surrounding all persons in the political, social, economic and artistic world.[29] The Court held that the media have elevated freedom of expression claims when reporting on public figures, the court further mentioned that; A public figure is entitled to a private life. The individual, however, should recognise that because of his public position he must expect and accept that his actions will be more closely scrutinised by the media. Even trivial facts relating to a public figure can be of great interest to readers and other observers of the media.[30] This case suggested that the public interest in such publications extends to private information about various public figures to which can be of curiosity to the public interest. Though, the courts can have very different views on the approach to the balancing of competing rights. For example, in the case of Mosley v News Group Newspapers[31], where the court determined that the right of the claimant was protected by Article 8. In this case, the defendant published a story with the title F1 BOSS HAS SICK NAZI ORGY WITH 5 HOOKERS which was accompanied with pictures, and had been made available on their website with an added video, which concerned Mosley and five other women engaged in sadomasochistic sexual activities and role play.[32] The article involved suggested that these sessions had a Nazi theme and that the role playing had mocked the way that Holocaust victims had been treated whilst in concentration camps. The footage of the session was recorded by one of the women by a hid den camera that was supplied by NGN. As mentioned earlier, when these two rights are in conflict, the court will not give an automatic trump statute on one right over the other. Therefore, the court had the difficult task of balancing the interests of Mosleys right to privacy with the interests of NGNs right to freedom of expression. The court decided that since they could not find evidence to suggest that he mocked victims of the holocaust, there was no interest to the public. However, the court stated that if they had published the story without the photographs and video, they would have allowed for freedom of expression to prevail over right to privacy. Thus, this case confirms that the courts are willing to protect an individuals right to privacy when freedom of expression is not justifiable. The court of Appeal in the case of Murray v Express Newspapers[33]followed in the steps of Von Hannover in holding that routine activities carried out in public could arguably attract a reasonable expectation of privacy. Whilst holding that leisure activities, such as a cafà © expedition could be characterised as part a persons private recreation time.[34] Although the Court failed to define what types of activities would qualify as recreation time and instead stated that the enquiry is highly contextual. As such, the Court further stated given that the publicity of such activities would adversely affect family recreation time in the future, the Court held that the claimant had a reasonable expectation of privacy. The way this case was approached by the Courts signals that a potential separation from the decision that was laid out in Campbell, where it was held that privacy law did not protect innocuous public activities.[35] In the case of Weller, Judge Dingemans did not expressly address the strain between the Von Hannover and A v B plc, which offered little to clarification if the UK courts approach to public figures under the misuse of private information. However, in approaching the balancing test, Judge Dingemans adopted the Von Hannover conception of a debate of general interest,[36] he considered that the photographs did not contribute to a debate of public interest, despite the considerable public profile of the childrens parents. As such, given that the photographs would have satisfied the public interest definition in A v B, given that there is a strong curiosity in Wellers family life, and as such Weller employed a more confined definition of general interest in line with the ECtHR. Although, Dingemans concern for the consequences of prohibiting the publication on the newspaper industry, suggests that the Court doesnt fully adopt the approach set out in Von Hannover. However, Dingemans stated that the photographs in question should be given freedom of expression weight as the is a public interest in having a thriving and vigorous newspaper industry [37] and the ability to publish such things due to public interest was considered important to the commercial wellbeing of the media, as previously stated the medias role is to act as a public watchdog. However, despite acknowledging the distinction in this argument, Dingemans considered that the medias interest did not outweigh the childrens right to privacy in the Wellers case.[38] The recent case and much anticipated case of PJS[39]where a famous figure won the right not to be publicly named in England and Wales over an alleged marital threesome, also known as a super injunction, despite his identity being known elsewhere.At first, the interim injunction was refused, however, the Court of Appeal allowed an appeal and restrained publication of the relevant names and such details.[40] Despite steps taken by PJSs solicitors to remove the story from the internet, despite their best endeavours, the court concluded that there remains a significant body of internet material identifying those involved by name.[41] Thus, NGN applied to Court of Appeal to then set aside the injunction as the information was already in the public domain and the injunction was no longer fulfilling its purpose, and interfered unjustly with their Article 10 rights of freedom of expression.[42] However, the Supreme Court reinstated the injunction saying that without a proven public interest in the content, there is no free-standing public interest in publication. The court cant sanction for one media outlet what it believes, on balance, will be deemed unlawful at trial, even if others have published the material already. As such, Mance mentioned; For present purposes, any public interest in publishing such criticism [of PJS] must, in the absence of any other, legally recognised, public interest, be effectively disregarded in any balancing exercise and is incapable by itself of outweighing such article 8 privacy rights as the appellant [PJS] enjoys. (Emphasis added)[43] Rea argues that this case points out the dilemma courts face daily, especially in the digital age, as such media on the interest cannot be controlled as largely as print or television media.As such these cases illustrate the balancing test in action, and how to courts use that to prevent one right from prevailing the other. References Thompson K, Balancing Privacy and Free Speech: A Critique Of English Privacy Law Under The Human Rights Act (MJur, Durham Law School 2013) http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9398/> Horsey K and Rackley E, Kidners Casebook Of Torts (12th edn, Oxford University Press 2015) British Broadcasting Corporation, The Public Interest, The Media And Privacy (BBC 2002) accessed 16 February 2017 Harris C, Charlotte Harris: Freedom Of Speech And Privacy Are Naturally At Odds With Each Other. Can You Balance Freedom Of Speech And Privacy? (Mishcon Graduates, 2017) accessed 23 February 2017 Tibbetts G, Max Mosley Admits Passion For Sadomasochistic Sex (Telegraph.co.uk, 2008) accessed 26 February 2017 Phillipson G, Why Should We Have A Right To Privacy? (BBC Religion Ethics, 2013) accessed 21 February 2017 Dyer C, Celebrities To Clarify Privacy Law (the Guardian, 2006) accessed 24 February 2017 [1] Kirsty Horsey and Ericka Rackley, Kidners Casebook Of Torts (12th edn, Oxford University Press 2015) at para 138. [2] The Human Rights Act 1998, art. 8 (1). [3] Gavin Phillipson, Why Should We Have A Right To Privacy? (BBC Religion Ethics, 2013) accessed 21 February 2017. [4] The Human Rights Act 1998, art. 10 (1). [5] Thorgeirson v Iceland [1992]14 EHRR 843 at para 63. [6] British Broadcasting Corporation, The Public Interest, The Media And Privacy (BBC 2002) 19-20 accessed 16 February 2017. [7] Charlotte Harris, Charlotte Harris: Freedom Of Speech And Privacy Are Naturally At Odds With Each Other. Can You Balance Freedom Of Speech And Privacy? (Mishcon Graduates, 2017) accessed 23 February 2017. [8] R v Central Independent Television plc [1994] Fam 192 at 203. [9] The Human Rights Act 1998, art. 8 (1). [10] The Human Rights Act 1998, art. 10 (1).

Runway And Terminal 6 Developments Engineering Essay

Runway And Terminal 6 Developments Engineering Essay The problem that I have decided to research and gather a greater understanding of, is the expansion of Heathrow. This is a greatly debated topic at the moment, and something that comes under scrutiney from numerous people and parties. If this work is successful it would show people that real issues surrounding the very controversial expansion, and the solutions that the expansion will solve, and the new ones that it will create. The problem I am looking at is the likely impacts of Heathrows 3rd runway and terminal 6 developments. I am going to be looking specifically at the environmental, economic and social problems caused by the possible expansion. For my research, I looked at recent news articles, websites and documents released by the government, and other organizations that look into developments like this. I think that the answer that I found with this research was that the airport should not be allowed to expand, however, Stansted airport should. The answer that I have come up with is potentially possible. Assess the likely impacts of Heathrows 3rd runway and Terminal 6 developments. On the 16th December 2003, the British Government announced its intentions for the future of air travel in the UK. This included the 3rd runway at Heathrow, as well as the 6th Terminal. There has been considerable opposition to this development, especially from Environmental Groups, such as Greenpeace. This essay will assess the likely environmental, social and economic impacts of having the third runway, and whether some of the current imapcts of the airport will be resolved. Heathrow is the UKs biggest and busiest airport. It is also one of the busiest airports in the world. It is located in the Hillingdon Borough of London. The airport is about 14 miles west of Central London. The airport has very good access with two main roads near it, these being the M4 and the M5.  [1]   From the maps, we can see the airport is located to the west of the city. As the airport has East-West runways, there are tighter operating restrictions on when planes can arrive and depart. Most of the major European airports, such as Amsterdam and Charles-de-Gaulle, are located North of South of their respective cities. Amsterdam has runways in 5 different directions, meaning that planes can arrive and depart at most times of the day without disturbing anybody. Charles-de-Gaulle has East-West runways, but can operate more freely as there is no city in its way. These airports do not run the risk of arrivals and departures over peoples house at unsociable times. Heathrow has to clamp down its operations during the night so as not to disturb nearby residents. Heathrow is operating at about 99% capacity, while Amsterdam and Charles-de-Gaulle are operating at about 70% capacity. As both these airports have at least double the current number of runways at Heathrow, they are airports that could start taking business away from Heathrow and the UK.  [2]   The government issued some strict policies for the 3rd runway. Firstly, the third runway will operate at half its capacity when it opens, (scheduled in 2020), raising the total number of flights at Heathrow from 480,000 to 600,000 rather than the 702,000 that was inteded. Secondly, the total carbon emissions from UK aviation must fall below 2005 levels by 2050. And finally, aircraft using the third runway will have to meet strict greenhouse gas emissions standards. This is the toughest climate challenge for aviation in any country in the world.  [3]   There are numerous impacts that the 3rd runway and the Terminal 6 developments could have. I have broken these down into environmental, economical and sociable reasons. The environment could be hit hard by the 3rd runway and Terminal 6 developments. Firstly, surface runoff will be increased. Surface runoff occurs when the ground cannot soak up any more water, and the excess water ends up flowing across the top of the ground. At Heathrow, this problem will be escalated by the high amount of impenetrable surfaces, such as concrete and tarmac. This extra surface runoff could cause flooding, or depending on where it is directed (if at all), it could make the drainage system fill with silt. Flooding could then become a bigger problem, or, depending on the drainage system type, erosion could occur. The erosion would be more noticeable on a natural drain, such as a river or stream. Airports use large amounts of aviation fuel and, in the winter, large amounts of de-icing fluid. This, if ending up on the ground, could get into a water source, and start contaminating water. A problem noticed at airports other than Heathrow, such as airports in countries with a colder climate and that are more prone to snow and icy conditions, would be fluids ending up in the snow. They are not visible to the naked eye, but when the snow starts melting, they become a big problem, as they usually enter a water source through surface runoff. For Heathrows latest terminal building (Terminal 5), they have designed a SWOT system. SWOT stands for storm water outfall tunnel. All surface runoff water is pumped into a specially built reservoir, 2 kms away from the airport. Before the water is allowed into the reservoir, it is thoroughly cleaned. The system is helping to reduce the environmental impact of the airport as well. Some of the cleaned water is pumped back to Terminal 5 and used in the heating system and in toilet flushing.  [4]   The lack of vegetation will mean that there is more soil infiltration taking place. Water will be absorbed quicker into the soil, which means that it will become more saturated in a smaller amount of time. This means that surface runoff may be a bigger problem at the airport when it rains. The extra runway and terminal will cause lots of extra congestion around London. This is enhanced by the airports location on the M4, and very close to the M4/M25 intersection. Any accidents in and around the airport will have a knock on effect on the surrounding roads. If people are sitting in queues, then they are using fuel without moving anywhere. The increased passenger numbers through the airport will increase pollution from cars as people will have to get to the airport. Planes will still leave the airport at their scheduled time, whether passengers are onboard or not. This means that planes are still polluting the atmosphere, but with less people on board, and the people that are not on board, are still polluting the atmosphere by being in queues. After the construction phase of the airport, any habitats that have not already been destroyed will be severely affected. The surface runoff could temporarily destroy habitats. A lack of wildlife in the area would look bad on the airport, as airports try to encourage some sort of wildlife into the area. However, birds and planes do not mix very well, as was proved on 15th January 2009, with the River Hudson plane crash.  [5]  The airport would have a lack of vegetation around it, apart from grass, and a lack of vegetation reduces humidity. A lack of humidity may cause animals to leave the area. Figure Noise pollution will become another major issue. The animals around the airport eventually get used to the noise. Humans living around the airport have to get used to the sound of the airport, but they are never satisfied, despite the lower and lower noise regulations. Figure 1 shows the current (2008) noise levels (in decibels) around the airport.  [6]   Figure 2 Figure 2 shows the predicted noise levels in 2030, again measured in decibels. As you can see, the 57 decibel mark has moved much closer to the airport. This is due to planes becoming more powerful, and quieter. This means that they can climb higher out of the built up areas. When the plane is higher, the sound of the ground is reduced, and something that is good for the environment would be that the higher a plane goes, generally, the less fuel that is uses.  [7]   Figure 3Figure 3 shows the 57 decibel mark around the airport in 2030. This map has the added feature of showing the average daily usage of each projected departure route. The 3rd runway predicted departure routes do not merge with the existing runway depature routes, this could be due to the runway only serving short haul destinations.  [8]   Figure 4The use of bigger planes, such as the Airbus A380 will help the surrounding area. This plane can carry up to 800 people, with a 1000 people varient on the way. Encouraging the use of larger aircraft could be one way that Heathrow reduces its damaging effects on the environment. At the moment, Heathrow is cutting back on noise levels. However, this has been done by not letting older planes use the airport. The effects of the noise levels being cut down are slowing, however, as there are a very limited number of older planes that use the airport. Night flights have also been reduced, and there are only a number of planes that are allowed to land at night, due to noise restrictions. http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/44365000/gif/_44365809_heathrow_flight_paths416.gif Figure 4 shows the holding stacks used by Heathrow. These are currently situated at Bovingdon, Lambourne, Ockham and Biggin. The holding stacks are used to hold planes while they wait in line for their landing slot. With a 3rd runway only to be used for short haul flights, and at half capacity (initially), the airport could make use of the runway to get planes on the ground quicker. This means that planes are flying for less time, saving fuel and reducing pollution. This will obviously help the environment. At the end of a long haul flight, the aircraft weighs about the same as a plane that is about to start a short haul flight. As landing distances are always shorter than take off distances, the 3rd runway could be used to help get planes on the ground. It should be pointed out that the diagram is for the current two runway layout that the airport already possesses. This does not take into account any holding stacks that could be made by the new runway, or holding stacks that have to be moved or made nonexistent for the future. The airport could end up with its own microclimate due to the darker surfaces absorbing heat and releasing it slowly throughout the day. This could make the temperatures at the airport 1-2 °C warmer. As the air is warmer, it will be able to hold more moisture. Warm air rises until it reaches the dew point, and then it will start to form clouds. The clouds will eventually release the moisture as rain. The airport could be wetter by between 5 and 10%. The pollution around the airport will increase the effect of the clouds, as raindrops form around pollution. At the airport, there would be lots of pollution, and so lots of rain will be forming here. There will be less humidity around the airport (as mentioned earlier, due to the lack of vegetation). Even though there will be more rain, the airport will be hotter, so the moisture will be evaporated quicker. And as the prevailing wind direction is from the west, the clouds and rain could be moved over the main city of London. In microclimates, sometimes the wind is altered. At Heathrow, it depends on where you are, as to how the wind has been altered. The prevailing wind direction is from the west (heading east). A lot of the buildings at the airport are North-South facing (even more so when Terminal East is built), and so you will be protected from the wind more when you are between these buildings. There are going to be numerous social impacts of the airport being expanded. The residents of the area that Heathrow most directly affects (West London) are going to have noticeable impacts on their day to day life if/when the third runway are built. Firstly, the airport will be busier, meaning that the noise from the airport will start earlier, and may also be louder. The airport has a policy that no planes should land before 5 am, unless it is an emergency, however, British Airways have a flight from Honk Kong that lands at 4:30 am every morning.  [9]  This disrupts residents, and as a result, many suffer from lack of sleep. The sound from the planes taking off is heard all day long. Even in the areas that are not classed as noise affected, the plane noise is very loud, and pretty much constant. Residents complain that after one plane has gone out of ear shot, another plane enters, and the cycle starts all over again. Some residents health is going to be affected by the airport expansion, mainly because air pollution will increase. Asthma in young children is severely affected by air pollution. Apparently, Heathrow already breaks the EU regulations on nitrous oxide. Even more flights would mean that the levels of this gas would be greater than ever before. A lot of efforts to make airport noise quieter normally mean that more nitrous oxide is produced. Sipson, a village near the airport would have to be cleared for this 3rd runway. The village would lose about 700 homes, a church and eight grade II listed buildings and graveyard would have to be bulldozed to make way for the new transport links. The noise levels from the airport would be greater as there would be more flights. BAA has said that the noise levels would not exceed 2002 noise levels. However, in 2002, Concorde was still operational. The noise from just one Concorde flight every 4 hours is the equivalent of 120 flights, one every two minutes, spread of the same time period. Also, with the noise pollution, the diagram on page 3, showing the 57 decibel mark is a true diagram. However, noise annoyance does start at around 50 decibels. There are only 258,000 people living within the 57 decibel mark region, but there are over 2 million people living in the 50 decibel area.  [10]   Lastly, there are going to be economical impacts to do with the expansion. The government have outlined some figures on what the runway will bring to the economy, and what it will cost the economy. The figures are shown below: Generated user benefit + £9 Billion Producer benefit + £5 Billion Government revenue + £3 Billion Climate costs - £4.8 Billion Building costs - £6.8-7.6 Billion Tourism An undecided positive amount Other costs/benifits - £0.3 Billion Total net economic benefit + £5.1-5.9 Billion The terms in the above table are defined as: The Generated user benefits are the economic benefits to future passengers who will be taking a flight in the future, when flying is cheaper. The flying will be cheaper, as the more capacity an airport has, the cheaper the flights. The Producer Benefit and Government Revenue figures are benefits due to the extra revenue that the airports operators gain and the greater tax revenue the government gets, due to greater passenger numbers. Climate costs are an estimation of the cost of the damage caused by the additional emissions from the extra aircraft using Heathrow. Building costs are the estimated building costs of building the 3rd runway, and the extra infrastructure that it needs. Other costs and benefits are estimations of the damage caused by the extra noise pollution, and other costs that may not be documented. Tourism costs are a figure that is harder to define, mainly because the extra runway could be used in two ways. Tourists could come to the UK and boost the economy over he re, or people from Britain could be going abroad on holiday, meaning they boost the economy of other countries.  [11]   Figures of about  £30 Billion over 60 years have been forecasted, however, the initial figure has been released of around  £5.5 Billion over 60 years. BAA (the airport owner) has said that the runway could be worth as much as  £7 Billion a year. This is due to the current economic climate and the growth of air travel at the moment. When we come out of the recession, this figure will no doubt be massively increased. The extra money that would be created due to the runway would not be directly associated with the airport. The runway would create extra jobs, and mean that London becomes an even bigger international business location. The 6th Terminal has not been mentioned in these prices, but more jobs would be created in the process of this terminal being built, and being made operational. The airport would have to employ more staff to keep the Terminal functioning properly. The runway would manage to reduce delays and increase the frequency of flights. This means that people could be more productive (especially business people) as they would not be travelling for as long to foreign destinations. The average cost of a minute delay in a plane is  £23.40 (In 2005 prices). Taking into account the average plane delay time at Heathrow in 2005 and the cost of a delay, the total cost of delays to all the airlines operating at Heathrow was estimated to be more than  £185 million. The 3rd runway should help to reduce delays, meaning that money is not going to be spent on delayed planes. It should be mentioned here, that not all flights are delayed due to airport capacity. Sometimes passengers do not turn up for their flights, and their luggage needs to be unloaded, adding to the departure time, and effectively delaying planes. The weather can also mean that planes are delayed. Sometimes, airports are closed due to the weather. However, Heathrow airport is rar ely closed due to the weather. Destinations within the UK would be more easily accessible as well. The new runway and Terminal may allow extra destinations to be reached by the airport, reducing the need for transfers at airports outside of the UK. The delays in the runway being built are losing the UK economy an estimated  £900 million to  £1.1 billion each year.  [12]  This is a serious amount of money, and in the current economic climate (3rd quarter of 2009), could be money that would really help to boost the economy within the UK. This money would mostly be spent on jobs and tax meaning that many unemployed people in London and the surrounding area would find direct employment with the airport, and people further afield would be able to find jobs to do with the airport, but not necessarily at the airport. There are other alternatives to expanding the airport. These would eradicate the problems associated with the current site of the airport, and they would also enable the UK to increase its airport capacity. The new sites that have been considered include an airport in the Thames Estuary, Maplin sands, near Southend-on-sea in Essex and expanding Stansted. The planning and evaluation stage of Maplin sands didnt get going as there was a lack of public money for this project. Expanding Stansted airport has been another option that has been deeply explored. If Stansted had two runways, then it would have a higher passenger capacity per year than Heathrow does. Also, it would be able to have flights going during more hours of the day than Heathrow does, due to the operating restrictions surrounding each individual airport. There are plans for Stansted to have up to 4 runways, considerably increasing its passenger capacity, and making it the busiest airport in the world. The airport in the Thames Estuary would have virtually all its flights leaving over the North Sea, meaning that noise pollution would not affect anybody and the airports actions would have minimal impact on people if the airport was built in the estuary. Since the 1960s, 13 major cities have moved their main airports from inside the cities to the outskirts of the cities. These include Paris, Milan and New York. The most recent and noticeable airport move would be Hong Kong International airport. The government spent 6 years and $20 Billion on construction of an artificial island for the airport, building the new airport, and linking the airport to the city with a high speed bullet train. The main reasons for not moving Heathrow would be the money issues. The expansion has already had  £65 million spent on it, and the spending has to come to a stop. This is because the Labour party are the only party that are pushing forward for the expansion and there is not much point spending any more money if the airport will not be allowed to expand under a new government. If the government decide to move the airport, building the 6th terminal and 3rd runway would have been a waste of time and money. In conclusion, therefore, the Heathrow expansion does have numerous problems surrounding it. Some problems that the current airport has are solved, but these solutions mean that more problems will be caused. Some of the solutions for the airport as a whole are very promising, such as building a new airport, or expanding Stansted. However, these will inevitably bring new problems. In my opinion, the airport should not be closed down, nor should it be expanded. They should simply finish building the current Terminal East, and leave the airport as it is. Stansted should then be expanded and some of Heathrows daily flights moved there. Heathrow airport would then be able to carry on as it was, without having any extra problems created. As BAA own Stansted anyway, they would still be getting a greater income, but without having to expand Heathrow. There are lots of questions surrounding the expansion of Heathrow airport, and in my opinion, I do not think that the expansion should go ahead . The problems that it would solve would not counteract the problems that would be created.

Essay --

Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore’s book Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919-1950 shows the Civil Rights movement in the same light as those writers like Jacquelyn Dowd Hall who believed in â€Å"The Long Movement.† Gilmore sets out to prove that much more time and aspects went into the Civil Rights Era and that it did not just start at the time of Brown v. Board of Education and the civil rights acts of the nineteen sixties. The book adhered to the ideology of â€Å"The Long movement† aspects of the civil rights era during its earlier times. However it also differs by displaying the more unorthodox, often unseen origins of the movement in Communism, labor, and fascism. She also shows that Black civil rights is not a problem faced by many countries. In Fact, that the United States can share the shame of holding a race of people down, with only few others. In Gilmore’s opinion the movement began in 1919, When African American Soldiers began returning from WWI and even though they risked their lives that same as the whites, African American’s still faced oppression. In this book...

Zuni Indian Mythology :: essays research papers

Hundreds of years ago the Zuni people created and told stories of human and world creations, tales of love and lust, and just about anything "that gave people an explanation for something they could not understand" (Gaarder 25). They made up all these legends or myths before there was anything called science. The stories came from the heart and soul of these native people. Legends are not just silly stories that were told for amusement they are like magic lenses, they allow us to have a glimpse of social orders and the daily life of how the Indians interpreted things long ago. One legend of the Zuni tribe tells the tale of the sun and the moon and how these two heavenly bodies came into being. The legend is called "Coyote Steals the Sun and Moon." The story begins when an out of luck Coyote can never seem to kill anything. He watches Eagle catch rabbit after rabbit with all the ease. He decides to go to Eagle with a proposition. Coyote told Eagle that they should hunt together, Eagle accepts, so they begin to hunt in partnership. Still all Coyote catches is just a couple of grubs, while Eagle is far ahead with many rabbits. At the time the world was still dark, the sun and moon had not been placed into the sky yet. So coyote blamed his hunting problems on the fact that he could not see and eagle if he knew where they could find light. Eagle was not really sure, but he figured it was somewhere on the west. So they set out to find it. They soon came to the Kachinas' village, where the villagers were busily going all out in their sacred dances. The Kachinas invited Coyote and Eagle to rest and have a bite to eat while they continued to dance. Eagle observed the people and could sense all the power they bestowed within. He began to wonder if they were the ones who had control of the light. Coyote pointed to two boxes, a large one and a small one. They noticed that when the people wanted light they opened the lids of the boxes. In the smaller box was the moon, it contained little light. In the larger one was the sun and it gave off a lot of light. Coyote told Eagle that they should go and steal the big box. So when all the Kachinas went home to sleep, Eagle put both the sun and the moon into one box and flew off. After a while Coyote wanted to carry the box

Aristotles Life :: Philosophy, Greek, History

Aristotle’s Life Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, educator, and scientist, and was also one of the most influential thinkers in Western culture (World Book 663). Through his writings, Aristotle considered, summarized, criticized, and helped to further develop many of these traditions from which he had learned from Plato, his teacher. He was born in Stagira, and both of his parents died when he was a boy. His legal guardian named Proxenus raised him (World Book 663). At the age of 18 years of age, Aristotle entered Plato’s school in Athens called the Academy. When Plato died in 347 BC, Aristotle left the Academy to live with some of Plato’s disciples who were living with Hermeias. In 334 BC, he returned to Athens and founded a school called the Lyceum (World Book 663). His school, philosophy, and his followers were called peripatetic, which is Greek for walking. The reason for this name was because Aristotle did most of his teaching while he was walking with his students. After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BC, Aristotle was charge with impiety by the Athenians, which was a similar crime that was brought upon another philosopher, Socrates. Worried that he would be set to death for this charge, Aristotle fled to the city of Chalcis. A year after his arrival in Chalcis, Aristotle died (World Book 663).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Aristotle’s Physics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Aristotle work on basically all of the basic known subjects (Math, Science, Literature, English, Ethic, etc…). He also made his contribution in the field of Physics and Metaphysics (means after physics). Aristotle’s Physics is composed of several books and each is broken up into different parts of physics.

Research Paper: Crime Prevention Strategies

Contents Page Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Research Question (or hypothesis)†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Research (including methodology)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 Findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 Reference List†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Executive SummaryThe focus of this paper will be based upon different crime prevention strategies implemented by members of the communities, local and government authorities. It will focus mainly on those practices involving community cooperation and portray how they are successful or unsuccessful in reducing criminality in high crime areas. Firstly, the topic of this research report in clearly stated below. The methods used to acquire the information contained in this research report are also described below.The literature review discusses the three main themes found in the allocated articles relating to community crime prevention. These include techniques to reduce juvenile crime; fear of crime between the community members and the social divides that are created by implementing community crime prevention strategies. The findings discuss, in depth, the effects on the three themes mentioned above once these prevent ion strategies were implemented. It gives examples of peoples experiences with crime and crime prevention. Finally the discussion presents the outcomes achieved, that are shown by the various uthors. It also touches on the government’s involvement and how it can be improved. The conclusion sums up all the findings in this report and gives an idea of future hope for less crime. Research Question (or hypothesis) ‘What are the leading practices in the field of community crime prevention? You can choose to either research and discuss a wide range of different community crime prevention strategies, or focus on an example of a particular technique and research its successes, limitations and applications. ’ The topic of this paper discusses community crime prevention.It talks about a range of different types of prevention strategies that are used to reduce or minimise crime targeted areas or fields. The various effects of these strategies are shown throughout the report . Research (including methodologies) Before composing this research report, the methodology exercised for this task was content analysis. Content analysis demands for the reader to read ‘in between the lines'. Its main requirement is to draw conclusions from the information presented and apply it to the point being made.The requirements of this methodology are to research and locate a range of reliable secondary resources, applying them to strengthen the argument of crime prevention. Primary research was not conducted as that would have been a more advanced project and is not part of the academic requirement for an undergraduate level. Many different databases were used such as the internet, university databases, academic libraries and Google scholar. Access to libraries and the internet were vital in achieving this task.The scholarly articles were beneficial to this task as the composers of these articles had conducted detailed research themselves, allowing their information to support the point being made in this task. Literature Review Many areas are now trying to implement community crime prevention in order to get citizens more involved in reducing or preventing crime in their neighbourhoods. The articles discuss the different techniques being used to implement this change. One main strategy is connecting the citizens to the criminals.By doing so the citizens are able to see the results that occur when people become criminals. The three main themes explored in these articles are: 1. Youth/ juvenile violence, 2. Social divide created between communities, and 3. Reducing fear of crime The philosophy of Robert Peel that â€Å"the police are the public and the public are the police†, is one that perfectly sums up the relationship between the police and the rest of the community (Lentz & Chaires 2007). This quote suggests that law enforcement needs approval from citizens and residents of neighbourhoods to perform their duties correctly.Meaning, th is requires the police to maintain an informed relationship with the community. By doing so they are reducing the reoccurrence of the themes in crime prevention mentioned above. Previously, there was not enough knowledge or resources amongst communities to raise awareness or organise crime prevention programs for juveniles. Today, schools together with police and community-based workers are aiming to provide the expertise to help create crime prevention programs for juveniles.It is believed that that one of the most active crime prevention strategies is effective intervention programs. A substantial number of crimes amongst adolescence are detected from anti-social behaviours. Youth need to be more involved in their community activities such as church associated groups, sports clubs, recreation centres (Dodington et al 2012, p. 1026). Other school organisations such as ‘Links to Learning’ helps adolescences engage in activities that will teach worthy skills for future w ork and careers.All these extracurricular activities will give youth less time to consider committing crimes and more time to become involved in the community. The National Crime Prevention 1999 quotes â€Å"an improved understanding of the early childhood origins of juvenile delinquency highlights the opportunities for prevention programs† (Bor et al 2001, p. 5). One of the limitations of creating community based crime prevention and linking the citizens to crime and criminal is that it creates social divisions between citizens.Usually the higher and middle class citizens are involved in community project and the lower class citizens are left out. This makes the lower class citizens inferior and targeted for being the ones who are expected to commit acts of crime. This creates a division of ‘us’ (higher class) and ‘them’ (lower class). Ward (1997, p. 4) suggests â€Å"situational crime prevention approach may displace crime, tends to benefit middle and upper classes at the expense of the poor people, and may increase the fear of crime. It also may create a siege mentality, isolating individuals and families. He then further states that complaints, of disturbances, made to the police are not always filed. Firstly, the police are given the authority to decide whether the complaint is serious enough, secondly if the victim and criminal have met before and finally judging by the victims social class (Ward 1997, p. 5). In order to effectively reduce crime, relationships between communities and local authorities need to be addressed. The presence of police may be quite contradictory to residents, it can be comforting for some but disturbing for others.If residents are not aware of measures being taken by police to help prevent crime, they cannot assume their presence is positive but rather understand that more crime is occurring (Mesko et al 2007, p. 70). This will further increase the fear in residents caused by the occurrence of criminal activity in their neighbourhoods’. One resident of Hyde Park describes her lifestyle to have become based upon fear. Since her home was broken into 3 years ago, a gun is always present beside her through the night; the TV is on the entire time she is at home and an alarm system has been installed.The extreme fear is shown in these extra precautions, â€Å"When I come home late at night, I always blow my horn before I get out of the car, so I make sure that a neighbour is looking out. When I sleep at night, there are at least three lights on. † (Ward 1997, p. 5). Complaints have been made to the police, however not knowing the severity of the case; no serious action has been taken. This, again, clearly shows a lack of communication between authorities and their neighbourhoods. Findings It is very clear from the above review that great measures are being taken to try and reduce or even eliminate crime within communities.Law enforcement authorities originally wou ld address crime; however, today citizens are becoming more active and involved in keeping their own communities safe. The results of the first theme, youth/juvenile violence, found that this violence originated from childhood behaviours and therefore should be addressed at these early stages. In doing so crimes committed by youth should be minimised. The main notion believed to reduce youth violence is ‘diversion’. Creating a distraction or alternative for youth is the only way to keep them from winding up face to face with the criminal justice system.This idea argued that juvenile offenders who are placed before the justice system are done more harm than good and are more likely to reoffend. On the other hand, diversions such as sporting activities or after school programs need to be created. These diversions will keep the minds of these ‘adults in the making’ off negative thoughts to commit crimes (Tilley 2005, p. 356). Detective Sergeant Heslop (1991), agreeing with the notion of diversion, states â€Å"Often there is little point in punishing an offender, as the punishment can be shown to be counterproductive. †¦ ] By charging them we are often condemning them to further and deeper involvement in the juvenile justice system, which is, it is submitted, a failure. † He also goes on to say that diversion is the greatest prevention tool and if used appropriately law enforcement can battle juvenile crime more efficiently. The next discussion was the social divide created within the communities when trying to implement crime prevention. Not all citizens were eager to work side by side with police to manage criminal activity.Studies show that people with higher levels of wealth and quality of life are more likely to cooperate with police as they have more to lose. However the rest of the general public, those classified to have lower levels of wealth and standards of living, were reluctant to become involved as they didnâ₠¬â„¢t have much to lose and were viewed as those more likely to commit crimes (Mesko 2007, p. 84). This divide within the community allowed citizens of the higher class to feel a sense of empowerment through their involvement with the police and once again created isolation for those individuals classified as a part of the lower social class.However the people of the lower social class can also be to blame. It is asserted by Podolefsky (1983) that generally when crimes are committed and no action is taken, liability is placed upon the police. Community members prefer to abuse authorities rather than cooperate and help put criminals away (cited in Ward 1997, p. 5). The final theme discussed is reducing the fear of crime in citizens. Findings show that people are afraid for their safety and do not want to be victims of crime. As a result of this fear, rates of crimes are increasing.In order to relieve this fear people started using different methods to defend themselves such as carryi ng guns, knives and other protective weapons (Mesko 2007, p. 75). Ward (1997, p. 5) also proves this as â€Å"(a)lmost all residents and business owners interviewed either formally or informally owned guns and kept them nearby, ready for use. † Police are given the primary role of fighting crime and are expected to â€Å"eliminate all evil in society so that the ‘good citizen’ can live in freedom without living fear† (Mesko 2007 p. 81).But to give this role to police solely and not have community crime prevention programs will not guarantee reducing crime within communities and furthermore not reduce fear of crime. Discussion The main point for discussion in this research paper is that community development is a necessary approach to addressing crime and promoting justice in our nation (Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 653). Over the years, police were given the main responsibility to deal with crime; however the development of a community approach will allow memb ers to engage in ddressing socials issues such as crime. This approach also gives member a responsibility to help maintain a safe living location. As pointed out in Acosta and Chavis (2007, p. 654) â€Å"In the community development approach, community members are responsible for solving community problems; to meet this responsibility, community members are given a voice and collective power to influence decisions and social outcomes that will affect their lives. † Some authors argue the effectiveness of an approach involving community crime prevention.The National Crime prevention Framework (Australian Institute of Criminology 2011) believes this approach has proved to be effective, with outcomes such as: †¢Reducing crime and other concerning problems within the community, †¢Increased safety and unity leading to less victimisation, †¢More emotional and psychological support for those who have been victims of crime, and †¢Reducing crimes by those who have previously offended or been engaged in antisocial behaviour. The efficiency of allowing the public to participate in the decision making related to crime, is also shown through the great outcomes achieved in the youth discipline.Partnerships were created with local universities that resulted in service learning programs and continuous student internships which were important in establishing students’ careers by putting them on the right path. Another great accomplishment was that students were achieving better results in school and their behaviours and negative attitudes were definitely improving (Pickens 2011, p. 19-21). An important outcome as clarified by Pickens (2011, p. 20) was â€Å"increasing youth’s awareness about risky behaviour, violence, weapons, drugs, and alcohol†, which was said to be the major motivation for all the other improvements.A topic that has been mentioned by various authors is the amount of government involvement in community crime pr evention. It is suggested by Australian Institute of Criminology (2011) that first and foremost the government can help to minimise crime, â€Å"Governments can address factors that influence the opportunities for crime to occur through its various responsibilities in areas such as managing public space and building design, providing community recreational services and developing policies that affect local businesses and urban development processes. Furthermore, Greenberg and Rohe (1984) indicate â€Å"(t)he physical design and appearance of a community (i. e. , structural assets) affect criminal access†(cited in Acosta & Chavis 2007, p. 654). Consequently, through developing safer public places governments can begin to create safer public environments. The articles and supporting documents used to assemble this research report were generally discussing very similar aspects of community crime prevention.Topics included juvenile crime prevention, the fear of crime that has be en developing in citizens and the community crime prevention strategies that were being used to reduce and prevent crime within neighbourhoods. To increase the effectiveness of these approaches further research should be conducted in the areas of government participation. To take community crime prevention to the next level, local government should consider formalising or enforcing requirements that must be met by all citizens.All citizens should be expected to be involved in creating a safer and combined community. Conclusion Summing up, the involvement of community members in prime prevention is an effective technique. With the help of schools, police, and citizens crime has been reduced in youth, fear of crime has been minimised and social relationships strengthened. More communities should be encouraged to implement more strategies involving their citizens. A final thought is whether governments should consider enforcing community crime prevention in all areas to enable safer li ving environments.

Stock Market and Stock Option Plan

Should the company implement the proposed employee stock option plan? In a typical stock option plan, the employee is offered a specific number of shares which he/she can exercise (buy) at some specified time in the future. The price at which the employee can buy the stock is equal to the market price at the time the stock option was granted (grant price). The employee's gain is equal to the market value of the stock at the time it is exercised, less the grant price. If the market price of the stock remains the same or decreases relative to the grant price, then the stock option is worthless. Stock options are typically offered to managers, most technical individual contributors and about half of the other professionals. Smaller organizations offer stock options more widely, in some cases to all employees In THTF case, stock options are offered to the former category. There are various factors that Tsinghua Tongfang should consider before implementing the proposed employee stock option plan. Future growth Stock options are appropriate for small companies where future growth is expected. Being a young company, THTF looks to be well posed for future growth. Cultural differences In China, there is high importance attached to feeling valued and having a sense of belonging. This results in Chinese companies having to maintain a good reputation for treating their employees well or risk unwanted attention. In the current economic climate, competitions for key employees are extremely fierce. Options, to a certain extent, do inspire loyalty and commitment and provide employees with a sense of ownership which is a unique and potentially powerful compensation tool. However, research (Economist’s article â€Å"False Options†) has shown that unlike the US counterparts, the Chinese rarely exercise vested stock options during their tenures at the firm. This may be due to the perceived notion in China where cashing out stock option may suggest disloyalty to the firm since once the options are cashed, the alignment of ownership and management no longer exists. Thus, options become an ineffective measure. Hence, there may a need for the company to consider the level of understanding among its Chinese employees with regard to options. An option may become an ineffective measure as seen from above. Educating employees is one resolution but the cost and logistical burden of such undertaking may outweigh the potential benefits for company and its employee. In THTF’s case, as the key management are pushing for the implementation of the stock option, it can be inferred that they do understand the usefulness of stock options. Retention Retention of employees is of great interest especially in the high-tech industry THTF was based in. Key management were highly sought after. Stock options can serve as a retention mechanism as stocks options will motivate employees to remain with the firm as they can see their investment grow. Stocks options will also encourage less risk-averse and optimistic employees or have employees that can increase value to work at the firm. This may be aligned with THTF interests. Therefore, stock options can help to retained and attract suitable people to work at the firm. However stock options can fall underwater due to bearish stock market conditions rather than poor firm performance and cause major morale and retention problems. This may lead to stock options not having their intended effects. Still, in this THTF’s case, they are currently in a robust and high-growth economy, thus stock prices are unlikely to fall. From an incentive point of view, employees benefit when stock price goes up, so stock options motivate employees to increase their company’s price. This si aligned with the shareholders interest as when stock price goes up, presumably value has been created. The stock options may get the employees to think like shareholders. Nonetheless, this may not be the case. An option holder does not share the downside in holding the stock. If the stock loses value, the option holder will simply just fail to exercise the option and thus avoid the loss. Risk that would scare off a shareholder is a matter of indifference to an option holder. This may lead management taking too much risk as the upside to taking the risk gives high paybacks whereas there is virtually no downside. In THTF, other measures need to be put into place to make sure of the interests’ alignment before implement stock options compensation. Employees From the employee’s point of view, receiving stock options is a huge benefit as the employee can reap financial success from the firm. But is it really so? The executives may suffer from the more volatility then the market as they are too under diversified with their stake too over concentrated in a irm. Employees should not put their eggs – instruments and salary – into one basket. Thus, this will lead to the undervaluing of options by the employees. This shows that options are wasted on employees. Market Paranoia Stock options compensation may also lead to the market being deeply suspicious of the corporation. When top executives are paid in stock options compensation, they get huge compensation packages which are hidden away from public scrutiny. Furthermore, stock options also dilute shareholders. Management may also manipulate the market before the stock options grant date to get a better deal for themselves which would lead to excess volatility. Thus, having stock options compensation may lead to distrust from the market, having long term adverse effects on the stock prices. Conclusion Given the current restrictions and ambiguities of the Chinese laws and regulations applicable to options, THTF should take a conservative approach to such practice. If THTF determined that the use of options is immediately necessary for the recruitment and retention of employees, the options should be granted.