The Ethical Issues with Illegal Immigration in the U.S Research Paper

The Ethical Issues with Illegal Immigration in the U.S - Research Paper Example Amnesty would offer millions of immigrants a chance to seek their provisions. Forgiving their crime of coming here illegally can be beneficial as it can certainly restore the law. Providing illegal immigrants with amnesty would not necessarily be a self-burden to society. John Kerry brilliantly states his opinion as he states, "Absolutely. I supported and was prepared to vote for amnesty from 1986. And it is essential to have immigration reform. Anyone who has been in this country for five or six years, who's paid their taxes, who has stayed out of trouble, ought to be able to translate into an American citizenship immediately, not waiting."   Instead, it would give these individuals a chance to prove themselves in a competitive work environment. The true version of living the American dream can certainly become a reality for these individuals. Moreover, one cannot refute the fact that this country was based upon the foundation of immigrants coming from different spheres of the wor ld. America has been known as the â€Å"melting pot† of assimilation of cultures and has given new opportunities to immigrants throughout history. Another key reason why it is logical to legalize illegal immigrants is due to the fact that these immigrants are hard-working individuals striving to seek provisions for themselves and their families. Millions of these illegal immigrants are undoubtedly employed currently throughout the nation. Rounding and deporting these immigrants is clearly illogical as it is not feasible. John McCain in his 2005 speech clearly states, â€Å"It would be impossible to identify and round up all 10 to 11 million of the current undocumented, and if we did, it would ground our nation's economy to a halt.

Leadership in Health Care Organizations Practicum Coursework - 14

Leadership in Health Care Organizations Practicum - Coursework Example Our entire organization was sealed in a way for the safety precaution purpose. Along with my team, especial health team was also overlooking the patient’s case. We were either prohibited to approach the patient unnecessarily. When I and my team went to give the initial treatment to the patient, then I examine that it might not be small pox. I immediately inform my leader to run some blood tests, before beginning the small pox precaution treatment. My leader humiliated me, and disagreed. Patient’s condition was not getting better with the given treatment. His condition was getting more critical. I hardly managed to conduct some tests of patient, to come up with a proof. I presented the tests result to my leader with a proof that, it is some other skin allergy containing identical signs of small pox. I asked my leader to agree with my observation, trust and stop the wrong medical treatment. On getting the patient worst, my leader eventually gave importance to my evaluatio n and made the especial health control team to cope up with me. As soon as the treatment given to the patient was replaced, it confirmed the misjudgment of small pox taken by my leader. Patient’s overall condition got stable and in control. Patient had some other skin disease, which was absolutely treatable. I was glad that my leader put down his stubbornness for a while, by giving the significance to my experience so far. That was the time, I really felt myself well acknowledged and educated in my working field. Leader can’t always be right. Sometimes the situations come across, which could probably mislead a leader’s examination over his team members. By doing the right thing at the right time, we as a team were successful in saving the life of our patient. Our organization was unsealed, and the inside working was switch onto usual. The outcome which can be taken by this experience is that, humility is

Reading response Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Reading response - Article Example These are people who look at issues beyond the boundaries of their country. Through movement of people from one part of the world to the other, globalization has changed the photography sector. The images being produced reflect the global culture. In addition, they are now influenced by culture of other people in the world. Initially, photographers only concentrated on local culture. However, with the expanding dimensions, things have changed. Photography is now trying to make changes on the whole world. Through new opportunities created by internet and social media, photographers are now able to reach a large number of people who emanates from different religions, culture, and races. The diversity aspects must therefore, be well represented in the overall product. In my opinion, the art has become of age with sharing of ideas. Criticizing art and creating sculptures and paintings of controversial persons in global society is a representation of diverse views. Some might support the art while other might not. Globalization comes with respect of diversity. As a result, the work of Hugo is a representation of

You should choose Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

You should choose - Essay Example In essence, it shall analyze the Katrina disaster in regards to the type of decision making method that was embarked on. It will further analyze the flaws therein. The policy administrator using this approach must first identify the ends. The implication herein is that the values or goals are first analyzed as how the situation should ultimately end up is outlined. The weights of all the ends are analyzed which means that the expected goals are analyzed from different sectors (Stillman, 2009). It is assumed at this point that the different parties involved have a consensus on the importance of the different goals. At this point, all possible and reasonable sets of means are set forth with an assumption that time and resources to investigate are rigorously set forth. Then, the aforementioned set of means is evaluated against the ends. A quantified measure is assigned with regard to how well the set of means does in the achievement of each end. Again, there is an assumption that there is the ability and the resources for the evaluation to take place. The overall measure is then calculated based on the assumption of the maximum measure. In this method of decision making, both the ends and the means are intertwined in that it is from the consideration of the means that ends have been agreed on by way of compromise, therefore the best that can be done is to find a satisfactory, mutually agree upon end and means. There is an assumption in this approach that the manager has very little and limited time and resources (except information) in his decision making process. The implication is that the means considered are actually known. The evaluation process of the means is not as refined as in the root method. In fact, many consequences are often ignored (Stillman, 2009). The means are chosen on the basis of a consensus among the different parties and not results of factors from the analysis. Because

Conventional cryptography Essay Example for Free

Conventional cryptography Essay Conventional cryptography uses identical secret â€Å"key† in both message encrypting and decrypting. Secret key cryptography often times having difficulty securing key management usually in opens systems with large numbers of users (RSA Lab, n. d. ). Diffie and Hellman initiated the concept of public-key cryptosystems in 1976, to work out the problems with key management. (RSA Lab, n. d. ) The newly created concept of public-key cryptosystems employs encryption and digital signatures. The public-key cryptosystem works by providing each person a pair of keys, a public-key, and a private-key. The advantage of using public-key is you can send out classified information publicly but it cannot be decrypted. Safely, the recipient that holds the private key is doing the decryption. The form the holds the security information for both sender and receiver is called a certificate. Public-key certificate The Public-key cryptosystems principal ingredients in realizing its security tasks are: 1) Issuer – holds the public-key and the compulsory signed private key. It is the basis of the certificate. Issuer can be anyone with a public key and a private key. 2) Subject- contains public key, value, or name. The subject is receiver of the certificate. The particular recipient in this field has exclusive rights to view the certificate. 3) Delegation- this field contains a Boolean value providing the subject with rights to re-delegate the certificate. If the field is false, the subject may not pass or delegate the certificate to other subject. 4) Authorization- it restricts the subject access rights to a specific information, data, and locations. These rights may be given depending on applications and the level of security required. 5) Validity dates specify the validity period of a certificate by an issuer. It limits the duration of access of the subject. Sample transaction process of public-key cryptosystem. The sample above shows Ka as the issuer, Kb as the subject, True as Boolean value to allow the subject to re-delegate the certificate, Authorization to read file in â€Å". \john\documents,† and certificate validity dates from 02/10/2006 to 02/12/2006. John with a Public-key (Ka) issued a certificate to subject Dianne (Kb). The certificate is sign by Johns private key, when Dianne wants to read and write files in John’s document directory, request will be written, signs it with his own private key, and send it. When the file server gets the request and found Johns (Ka) signed private key, then the request is granted. The server will now allow Dianne to read and write files in John’s documents directory until the validity date specified in the certificates validity field expires. The delegation occur when the Boolean field is mark True, Kb can now impart its right to other subject. Let us call the new public-key as Kc. Kb re-delegate its certificate to Kc and signs a new certificate for Kc at the same time. Kc now has two certificates, which form a chain. References: RSA Laboratories, (n. d. ), â€Å"What is public-key cryptography? † [online], http://www. rsasecurity. com/rsalabs/node. asp? id=2165 Wang Yulian, 1998, â€Å"SPKI,† Computer Science, Helsinki University, [online], http://www. niksula. cs. hut. fi/~yuwang/publications/SPKI/SPKI. html

US Immigration Policy: History and Arguments

US Immigration Policy: History and Arguments Recent years have made it clear that the current immigration system is broken and fails to meet Americas modern needs. Though it is based on family reunification, unfortunately current U.S. immigration law often results in the tragic separation of families or the forced departure of children with full U.S. citizenship when an illegal parent is deported. It is not only families that are affected by current policy. Americas workforce is a shared effort between citizens and immigrants. Admission of skilled workers enables the fulfillment of positions that Americans are not sustaining. In addition, current immigration policy allows for the provision of refuge for people who are at risk for political, racial of religious persecution from their country of origin (Congressional Budget Office, 2006). It is unfortunate that majority of the refugees end up settling in the inner cities where they adopt to living in communities embedded with crime (Baldoz et al.) According to Bill Ong Hing a Professor of Law and Asian American Studies at the University of California, children of refugees have grown up in crime ridden society, they commit a crime, get charged and serve time but later they are deported back to the country that they had originally fled. U.S. borders are out of control at a time of increased threats of terrorism. Vast numbers of immigrants cross the borders and enter into America; some die due to the harsh desert conditions while others remain in America illegally creating an underground society that is vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. These policies are not beneficial to either immigrants or American citizens and need to be modified in order to create a nationwide banister of hopeful equality so that entrance into the United States can be achievable by legal means without jeopardizing the rights and benefits of current citizens. Some believe that American immigration policy should be stricter; such terms to include the expulsion of illegal immigrants and placement of a border fence around United States; however, by providing a path for those who are here illegally to get legal status, a much more viable plan can be set to action leading to successful immigration into the United States. By increasing the number of available visas to immigrants and temporary nonimmigrant workers, creating tighter border security, expanding cooperation with developing nations and even imposing tougher penalties to employers who hire and abuse undocumented immigrants, we can provide such a benefit to all who wish to reside in the Land of Opportunity. DEFINITIONS Immigrant is a technical legal term given to a foreign national who has been granted permission to remain in the United States permanently. Such a person is a legal permanent resident (LPR) and is given a green card as a proof of legal status. A non-immigrant is a foreign national who is admitted to United States for a short period of time. They are given Visas according to their reason for entry. For example a student will get class F, visitor class B, and a temporary worker class H. Upon arrival at the port of entry, they are given an I-94 card, which is a small white card placed in the passport. The card indicates how long the foreign national is authorized to stay in United states (U.S.) either with a specific date the foreign national is to leave or with a notation such as D/S (duration of stay) which means that the person is permitted to stay as long as he or she maintains her status. Alien is a term given to someone who isnt a United States Citizen. This term includes temporar y visitors, legal permanent residents and undocumented individuals. Many advocates feel that this term has a negative connotation; therefore, the term foreign national/immigrant or undocumented will be used throughout this paper. Undocumented is a term given to foreign nationals who are present in the U.S. without lawful status. The term can also refer to those who entered the U.S. without inspection (EWI) by crossing the border, those who overstay their allotted time in the U.S. or those who violated the terms of their legal status. With very limited exceptions (notably asylum and immediate relative of a U.S. citizens partition) a person who is not in lawful status in the U.S. cannot change from being in the U.S. unlawfully to being a lawful individual (Congressional Budget Office, 2006). HISTORY In order to understand the issue of immigration, it is essential to pore over the background and history of immigration. According to Greenblatt (2008), United States was created as a nation of immigrants who left Europe for political, religious and economic reasons. After gaining independence, America had an open door immigration policy for 100 years (Greenblatt, 2008) The Early Laws The first actual naturalization law in the United States was the March 26, 1790 Naturalization Act restricting immigration to free white persons. Residency requirements were established so foreigners could prove their economic worth over a legislated period of time. In 1870 the law was changed to allow a limited number of Africans to enter. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 specifically excluded Chinese as they were deemed an inferior race and undesirable. This Act was repealed in 1943 when the Magnuson Act recognized the importance of Chinas alliance with the US in the war against Japan. In 1865, the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, while intended to protect newly emancipated slaves, in effect made automatic citizens All persons born or naturalized in the United States, regardless of the citizenship of the parents. The Quota System The 1921 Emergency Quota Act and Immigration Act of 1924 established national quotas on immigration based on the 1910 census figures of foreign-born residents in the US. The original intent may have been to maintain some level of protection for US workers from large influxes of skilled foreign workers. (Greenblatt, 2008) But the racial and ethnic quotas clearly reflected the racist attitude of the time that white Europeans were more desirable than any other diversity. Partly in response to the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, these racial distinctions embarrassed the government and congress offered amendments that eliminated them from the code with the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) of 1965; signed by president Lyndon B. Johnson as tribute to President Kennedy who was shot in 1963(Vial, et22) However, country quotas remained for foreign-born U.S. citizens who were expected to request family reunification. A visa system was created allowing foreign family members to request legal entry to the U.S. on a first-come, first served basis. PRESENT DAY IMMIGRATION LAWS With a family-based immigration system, immigration quickly became a Chain Migration process in which legal immigrants already present in the U.S. sponsored new relatives who would become legal and in turn sponsor additional relatives. The archaic quotas of the 1960s legislation were completely inadequate for the immigration flood of the 70s and 80s. There were the political refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Then came a rush of refugees escaping the wars and government persecutions in Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. (Vial, t(22) More recently, the United States is continuing to demand medical workers from the Philippines, software engineers from India and as of late, professional business people from China. The system has been unable to handle this demand and the flood of illegal immigrants has rapidly escalated to well over one million annually. The problem that America is facing today is a familiar issue, an issue that has existed long before the recent high-profile migrations from Mexico. However, rather than focus on reforming the antiquated and over-burdened processing system, Congress took an enforcement approach. They enacted the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986, which was signed by then President Ronald Reagan, creating penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants, an amnesty program for illegal immigrants already in the U.S. by 1982, and increased support for the Border Patrol (Greenblatt, 2008). In 1996, the Illegal Immigration and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIIRA) gave the government broad authority to construct barriers along the border and authorized a second layer of fencing in San Diego (Karaim, 2008). The IIIRA also established new definitions of criminal activity for which immigrants could be deported. The current waiting time for processing legal claims to naturalization continues to grow, now exceeding five years! The issues of immigration have been a hot potato for America for almost two centuries. Immigration reform continues to be highly emotional and controversial, but the policy must be fixed regardless of where one stands on the issue of immigration. Arguments Against Immigration Reform Most of the people against immigration reform are generally against immigration. The source of this resentment is routed in the indifference between the immigrants of the past and the current immigrants. In the past they were white and now they are not, they used to assimilate and now they dont, they used to be self sufficient and not they seek out government handouts (Krikorian, 2008, p. 2). Some scholars argue that Mexicans; who represent about 50 percent of the undocumented foreign nationals in U.S, constitute a major threat to a cohesive American identity (Huntington, 2004). For instance Huntington argues that the central to the American identity are the Anglo protestant culture, the American Creed as understood as the acceptance of certain political values, and Christianity. According to Huntington, a fundamental problem is that Latinos retain their Hispanic culture, including language and fail to assimilate and there for fail to acquire the American identity. Effects of immigration on jobs, wages and the economy The key to the economic facet of the conflict between mass immigration and modern society is the fact that immigration floods the job market with low skilled workers, creating what economist call a slack, or a loose, labor market Krikorian (2008, p. 133). Krikorian argues that when low skilled immigrant workers flood the market, they lower the collective bargaining power of the natives against the employers. As a result, upward mobility for the poorest is impaired by lower wages. Also increased availability of cheap labor reduces the incentives for more efficient use of labor, slowing the natural process of mechanization and other productivity increases in low wage industries where low skilled immigrants are located. This is a perfect example of a supply and demand theory. When an abundance of supply is available, the demand is always low hence if immigration is kept low, wages tend to ne high (Krikorian, 2008, p. 138). If the low skilled immigrants who are in U.S currently were to l eave, the wages would go up and probably employers would have incentives to provide things like healthcare and the low skilled Americans might have a chance to move into the middle class (Karaim, 2008, p. 752) Immigrants hurt the economy by not paying taxes and if they pay taxes, its normally low compared to a native due to the low wages immigrants make. Many immigrants work underneath the table thus, evading paying taxes. To make the matter worse, the send billions and billions of American earned dollars back to their home countries other than spending the money in America. Exporting millions of dollars while importing millions of poor people with large families means by definition, they will pay relatively little in taxes but make a heavy use of the government services (Krikorian, 2008, p. 167). Immigrants increase government expenditure by using public services, notably the health care system and the public education. The government created a welfare state in the name of supporting the poor. In his book, the new case against immigration, Kerikorian states that there was no welfare state during the prior waves of immigration- in fact it was until well after the end of the last wave of immigration in 1924 that the institution of welfare started to develop. The Social Security Act of 1935 established pension for the retired American citizens as well as unemployment assistance and aid to families with dependent children (Krikorian, 2008, p. 169). The child Nutritional Act of 1966 created WIC program, then in 1974 supplemental security income was created for impoverished elderly, blind and disabled. All this cost of these programs could have been kept low if the poor population bloated by the immigrants would not have increased. According to Krikorian, one in four people in U.S. is without health insurance is an immigrant and among children one in three is either and immigrant or a child of an immigrant. Since most of them dont have insurance; when they are sick (no modern society will deny them treatment) they utilize the emergency room. Not all the uncompensated care is covered by the government, hospitals are forced to write off the cost that they incur while treating the uninsured. Hospitals then shift the cost to the paying patients and their insurance companies, resulting in higher premiums for those who have insurance. Another costly service provided by the government is education. The total cost of expenditure to states for K-12 illegal immigrants was about $12 billion, and when the children born in U.S to undocumented foreign nationals the number doubles to about $28.6 billion (Martin, 2005). This doesnt include the cost that states incur implementing the bilingual education since most of immigrants dont speak English as their first language. Krikorian also urges that 22 percent of public schools are overcrowded, especially in schools that are located in central cities where 50 percent of the enrolments are minority who receive free or reduced price school lunches. The convention wisdom of the conservative movement which is the leading resistant group against immigration reform is to stop the flow of undocumented foreign nationals across the U.S borders and to deport most or all undocumented foreign nationals with their children. To solve this movement of undocumented foreign nationals, congresses enacted the Secure Fence Act in 2006 which was to secure the 670 miles border region spanning four states, California, New Mexico, Texas and Arizona (Karaim, 2008, p. 747). According to Karaim (2008, p. 747) roughly 370 miles designed to stop pedestrian (a fence consisting of wire mesh reinforced with concrete- filled poles planted 6 inches apart and standing a height of 12-18 feet), 300 miles if it to stop vehicular traffic and about 28 miles installed with high technology sensors and cameras that creates a virtual fence in parts of Arizona desert. This fence is also to stop would be terrorist from entering the U.S. Amnesty to those who broke the law is unacceptable and it not going to solve the issue instead it will encourage more undocumented foreign nationals to attempt coming to the U.S. According to North (2010, amnesty simply begets more undocumented foreign nationals, and they in turn beget new and more vigorous pleas for another amnesty. Secondly most of those who received amnesty were low skilled workers. North argues that people with limited skill and limited rights in the labor market can only lead to still greater discrepancies between the reach and the poor. Furthermore, giving another amnesty to low skilled individuals will just increase the dependence of the current welfare system which in turn will give rise to a burden to the current tax payers. Arguments for Immigration Reform Contrary to those who objet immigration reform and tend to perpetuate the notion that immigrants especially those who are undocumented, take American jobs and lower the wages is false. Most unskilled undocumented foreign national work in the three D jobs- Dirty, Difficult and dangerous jobs that the natives dont fill. The American labour market is a dual labour market. The dual market theory divides the economy into two segments: the primary and secondary sectors (Nadadur, 2009, p. 1041). According to Nadadur the secondary sector is different from the primary in that the secondary is temporary and consists of unskilled workers with little or no prospect of internal promotion while the primary sector is permanent and characterized by skilled work, employment stability and the presence of job ladders. Nadadur states that there is no t completion for jobs by the undocumented foreign nationals and native U.S. workers, and that a continue flow of Undocumented immigrants would benefit the majority of persons residing in the U.S. by complementing their labour market instead of competing for it. When the broader U.S. economy is examined; adopting a dual labour market view, it is hard to find strong evidence of negative wage effects on native workers Nadadur (2009, p. 1045). This is ascribed to the fact that dual markets shield native workers and due to the indifference of job sectors, wages are not affected by the influx of undocumented foreign nationals in the labour market (Nadadur, 2009, p. 1045). Immigrants taking secondary jobs allow businesses to minimize their costs of production; this positively impacts the income of all workers by decreasing the consumer costs. The consumers can also spend by buying goods and services and grows the economy in return. As stated earlier, there are about 12 million undocumented foreign nationals residing in the U.S. this population participates in the American and their countries of origins economy. Contrary to those who say that the undocumented immigrants dont pay taxes, about two thirds of the undocumented immigrants who work pay federal and state taxes, social security taxes and Medicare taxes Immigration Policy Center (2009). And all undocumented pay state taxes when they buy items from the local grocery store, when they pay property taxes even if its from the rental property they rent. Undocumented immigrants working on the books contributes to social security under names and social security number that dont much the social security administration (SSA) records. In a 2006 SSA report that the Earning Suspense File (ESF) tootled $586 billion. Unfortunately undocumented immigrants are not eligible to receive benefits social security benefits. Even when they become legal, they are only credited with the years worked after they became legal. Sometimes they leave the country without claiming any of the money they had contributed. Legalizing the undocumented foreign nationals has a net benefit to the economy. A research done conducted by Westat Inc, for the department of labour showed that workers who were legalized after the IRCA of 1986 experienced a net wage gain of about 15 percent (Immigration Policy Center, 2009). With an increase in wages begets increased in spending which begets strength in the economy. Most immigrants to the U.S. do want to learn English. There are strong economic prospects and strong incentives for becoming proficient in English. Employment prospects and earnings are greater for those with higher levels of other skills including schooling. There is also a greater access to and participation in civic, cultural, social and political life when one is able to communicate in English while living in the U.S. certain factors, however make it difficult for some individuals or immigrants to become proficient in spoken or written English (Chiswick Miller, 2007). Older immigrants have a difficult time learning a new language to the natural aging of the human brain making it difficult to learn new language and retain new acquired skills. Its not that they dont want to assimilate but sometimes its biology playing a factor. Its true that the undocumented immigrants utilize the emergency rooms as the primary source of health care, studies have proved otherwise. Dr. Ku Phd, MPH. conducted two different studies and arrived at the same deduction, there is little reason to believe that the united states is spending too much on health care for immigrants(Ku, 2009, p. 1327). This is could be due to the 1996 federal welfare reform law (Personal Responsibility Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, or PRWORA) which restricted Medicaid eligibility for immigrants admitted to the U.S after august 1996 for the first five years (Ku Matani, 2001, p. 247) unless its a medical emergency. Non-immigrants and undocumented immigrants qualify for Medicaid if they meet the other requirements; being in a Medicaid eligible category such as children and pregnant women (Siskin Lunder, 2009, p. 7). Many undocumented immigrants shy away from seeking medical attention probably due communication barriers, lack of knowledge of the Ame rican health care system and fear of detention by the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) (Kullgren, 2003, p. 1630. Another study done by Stimpson et al. showed that health care expenditure for the average immigrant have not been a growing problem relative to the expenditure among U.S. natives. (Garcia M J Eig L M Kim Y 201035 State efforts to deter unauthorized aliens:Legal analysis of Arizonas S.B. 1070)Garcia, M. J., Eig, L. M., Kim, Y. (2010, March 5). State efforts to deter unauthorized aliens:Legal analysis of Arizonas S.B. 1070 (R41221). Washington DC: Congressional research service. Foreign nationals are relatively healthy and have less access to  health insurance; they are disproportionately low uses of medical care (Goldman et al., p. 1710). Building a wall in order to control illegal immigration is not a viable project. This is a multi billion dollars project that will shift illegal immigrants towards more dangerous and difficult routes in to the United States (Karaim, 2008). It is estimated that the cost of construction the wall will cost about $3 billion and the maintenance cost of about $16.4 million to $million per mile depending on the damage done to the wall by illegal immigrants trying to cross the borders (Karaim, 2008, p. 749). Another challenge to securing the northern border between unites states and Canada which is 5525 miles. It is economically impractical to build a wall to secure this border. Alternatively the United States needs to convince Canada to end the free travel from Mexico (Karaim, 2008, p. 751). The wall alone cannot curb the problem of people crossing the border illegally.Only half of the illegal immigrants living in U.S crossed the border. The other half are visa abusers who entered with either fraudulent visas or violated the condition of a valid visa. Also there is no known terrorist that has been arrested trying to enter the U.S through the southern border. All the 9/11 hijackers entered in to the united states with temporary visas and overstayed the allowed time. Other would be terrorists have followed the same route (Karaim, 2008, p. 750). Infact according to Karaim (2008), terrorists like travelling the way everybody else travels. They like unpredictability. Ethical Arguments Why do people covet the dream of living and working in America? The answer is simple; America is the land of opportunities where all hard work is rewarded. Many of the immigrants share this American dream, a dream of success and prosperity for future generations. It is natural for humans to have desires, desires that make the nomads in East Africa to move from one place to another in search of greener pastures. This principle can also be applied to the early who emigrate into the land that is now called united states of America. The inception of the principle of worthiness changed the immigration laws in U.S. Those who are deemed to be desirable and worthy are allowed and those who fail short of the test are eliminated. Unfortunately racism was planted in to the laws (in 1790 congress made a requirement that only white persons could become American citizens) and race still drives the immigration debate today. Different states have passed laws that are considered divisive and they tend to alienate the members of the community. For example, the new Arizona bill SB 1070 is supposed to stop but slow illegal immigration. But there are provisions in the bill that are controversial; Section 2 of S.B. 1070, generally requires that in the context of a lawful stop, detention or arrest by state and local law enforcement pursuant to the enforcement of a state or local law, law enforcement must determine the persons immigration status, if practicable, when reasonable suspicion exists that the person is an alien à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ who is unlawfully present in the United States.(Garcia et al., 2010), p. 25). It is not easy to enforce this law without racial profiling especially where the population (both legal and illegal) is profoundly of Hispanic origin. Similar echoes were after 9/11 when the government deamericanised some of its citizens when it implemented the patriot act. People of Middle Eastern or Asian origin were single out as terrorists. Even after the Oklahoma City bombing, the Arabs were initially blamed by the media before it was discovered that it was a home grown American terrorist Timothy McVeigh. President George Bush tried to pass a comprehensive immigration reform bill but he was drowned by those who opposed immigration reform. Its clear that politicians use the principle of utilitarianism in making policies. In this case the president drowned was by a vocal anti-immigration group that has been able to control the debate. It would be beneficial for the Politians to apply the Rawlsian contract theory which requires one to put a veil of ignorance before making any decisions. In order to do that they need to bracket off the media and visit remote areas of nations south of Americas borders. I believe that the will see that desperate parents who want to a part of the American dream and they are willing to anything to be part of the dream. Possible Solutions Create a pathway for legalization of the illegal immigrants who are already here. So that they can no longer be exploited by unscrupulous employers Enact laws that are flexible to the rise and fall of the U.S labor demands. (Laws that respect people and protect all workers regardless to where they were born) while enforcing border laws. Work with developing countries especially south America to promote economic development and to decrease illegal immigration. Conclusion While the US. Immigration system appears to be fair and highly regulated on paper, the facts on the ground display as system that is in distress and needs to be reformed. Continuation of the enforcement only policies is not a practical or effective solution. Under the existing system, people are dying at the borders, immigrants are living in poor conditions, families are trying to reunite legally are separated for many years, employers are unable to hire the workers they need, U.S. workers suffer from disequilibrium in opportunity to gain employment due to the use of illegal immigrant workers by employers who seek to maximize on their profits. Meanwhile the United States government continues to throw billions and billions on this immigration issue hoping that one day it is going to stick and fix the problem. Its neither practical nor even economically feasible to deport more that 12 million people who currently reside in the U.S. illegally. We cannot also sit and pray that due to the economic hardship that one day the illegal foreign nationals will self deport them. United States must adapt to a system that is humane, fair and practical in relation to the immigration challenges of the 21st century. References (Chaudry A Capps R Pedroza J M Castaneda R M Santos R Scott M M et al 201002 Facing our future. Children in the aftermath of immigration enforcement)Chaudry, A., Capps, R., Pedroza, J. M., Castaneda, R. M., Santos, R., Scott, M. M., et al. (2010, February). Facing our future. Children in the aftermath of immigration enforcement. (Derose K P Escarce J J Lurie N et al 2007 Immigrants and health care: Source of vulnerability)Derose, K. P., Escarce, J. J., Lurie, N., et al. (2007). Immigrants and health care: Source of vulnerability. HEALTH AFFAIRS, 26(5), 1258-1268. (Edwards J R 200602 Two sides of the same coin. the connection between legal and illegal immigration)Edwards, J. R. (2006, February). Two sides of the same coin. The connection between legal and illegal immigration (1-06). Washington DC: Center of Immigration Studies. (Fennell M L Feng Z Clark A M Mor V et al 2010 HEALTH AFFAIRS)Fennell, M. L., Feng, Z., Clark, A. M., Mor, V., et al. (2010). HEALTH AFFAIRS. Elderly Hispanics more likely to reside in poor-quality nursing homes, 29(1), 65-73. (Gilroy M 18 Battle continues over instate tuition for illegal immigrants)Gilroy, M. (18). Battle continues over instate tuition for illegal immigrants. THE HISPANIC OUTLOOK IN HIGHER EDUCATION, 20-22. (Baldoz R Jimenez T Hing B O Shrikanitah J 2 Immigration policy and immigrant realities)Baldoz, R.(Moderator), Jimenez, T., Hing, B. O., Shrikanitah, J. (2). Immigration policy and immigrant realities. Stanford Universiry. Podcast retrieved from http:// (Chiswick R B Miller P W 2007 Economics of Language International analysis)Chiswick, R. B., Miller, P. W. (2007). The Economics of Language International analysis. NY: Routledge. (Congressional Budget Office 2006 Immigration policy in United States)Congressional Budget Office (2006). Immigration policy in United States (). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. (Goldman D P Smith J P Sood N 2006 Immigrants and the cost of medical care)Goldman, D. P., Smith, J. P., Sood, N. (2006). Immigrants and the cost of medical care. HEALTH AFFAIRS, 25(6), 1700-1711. (Huntington S P 200403 hispanic Challenge)Huntington, S. P. (2004, March). The hispanic Challenge. Retrieved June 17, 2010, from Foreign policy Web site: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2004/03/01/the_hispanic_challenge (Immigration Policy Center 200904 ecomomics of immigration reform: what legalizing undocumented immigrants would mean forthe U.S. economy)Immigration Policy Center (2009, April). The ecomomics of immigration reform: what legalizing undocumented immigrants would mean forthe U.S. economy (). Washington DC: Immigration policy center. (Ku L 2009 Health insuance coverage and medical expenditure of immigrants and native-born citizens in United States)Ku, L. (2009). Health insuance coverage and medical expenditure of immigrants and native-born citizens in United States. American journal of public health, 99(7), 13221328. (Ku L Matani S 2001 Left out: immigrants access to health care and insurance)Ku, L., Matani, S. (2001). Left out: immigrants access to health care and insurance. Health aggairs, 20(1), 247-255. (Martin J 200506 Breaking the piggy bank: How illegal immigration is sending schools into the red)Martin, J. (2005, June). Breaking the piggy bank: How illegal immigration is sending schools into the red. Retrieved June 17, 2010, from Federation of American immigration reform Web site: http://www.fairus.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticleid=17193security=1601news_iv_ctrl=1901 (North D S 201001 bailout for illegal immigrants? Lessons from the Implementation of the 1986 IRCA amnesty)North, D. S. (2010, January). A bailout for illegal immigrants? Lessons from the Implementation of the 1986 IRCA amnesty (). Washington DC: Center for immigration studies. (Vialet J 22 brief history of U.S. immigration policy)Vialet, J. (22). A brief history of U.S. immigration policy (Report No 80-223 epw). Washington DC: Congressional research service. (Greenblatt A 2008 Immigration debate)Greenblatt, A. (2008). Immigration debate. THE CQ RESEACHER, 18(5), 97-120. (Hatcher D L 2004 Science, ethics and technological assessment)Hatc

A Partir De L Exemple De Rennes French Essay

A Partir De L Exemple De Rennes French Essay Lagriculture face à   lurbanisation intensive des mà ©tropoles A partir de lexemple de Rennes et Saint-Jacques -de-la-lande INTRODUCTION Lorsque lurbanisation et lagriculture se disputent les mà ªmes terres, saffrontent alors des mondes, des mentalità ©s diffà ©rentes difficiles à   faire cohabiter. Du fait de son caractà ¨re multifonctionnel, lespace rural est en perpà ©tuel tension entre une fonction à ©conomique (de productività ©) et une fonction rà ©sidentielle ou de loisir, mais aussi une fonction de conservation (prà ©servation de la biodiversità ©, entretien du paysage). Dans ce contexte comment est-il possible de concevoir la cohabitation sur un mà ªme territoire, de modes de vie diffà ©rents? Quel processus damà ©nagement territorial peut à ªtre envisagà © pour concilier les diffà ©rentes pratiques de ces lieux entre urbanisation et nature? Parce que les campagnes tendent à   se densifier. La rurbanisation produit une consommation excessive despaces naturels, elle fragmente les parcelles cultivables et les consume petit à   petit. Le paysage sen trouve modifià ©, car lespace rural tire sont paysage de sa fonction premià ¨re, lagriculture, cest elle qui faà §onne le territoire. Paradoxalement, la venu de nouvelles habitation dans lespace rural dà ©truit ce pourquoi mà ªme elles sont venues : le paysage. Que devient la campagne si elle est urbanisà ©e de la mà ªme faà §on que la pà ©riphà ©rie proche des villes ? Si le prix du foncier ne produit rien dautre que des zones pavillonnaires en tous points identique à   celle de nos villes. Pour rà ©pondre à   cette demande de nature il est indispensable de penser la ville et la campagne comme une seule et mà ªme entità ©, un systà ¨me global oà ¹ lune est dà ©pendante de lautre. En effet la campagne doit à ªtre pensà ©e comme le garde mangà © de la ville pour des raisons de sà ©curità © alimentaire et à ©conomique, dans un contexte oà ¹ les produits lointains seront de plus en plus soumis aux taxations carbone. Hypothà ¨ses Lespace rural ne peut plus à ªtre considà ©rà © comme un vide ou une rà ©serve foncià ¨re, il doit à ªtre pensà © dans un systà ¨me global oà ¹ rural et urbain forme un tout. En effet dans le contexte à ©conomique actuel les villes redeviennent dà ©pendantes de leur arrià ¨re pays. Il faut donc rà ©interroger le systà ¨me de gouvernance à   là ©chelle mà ©tropolitaine oà ¹ la mise en place dune politique globale permettrait de recrà ©er du lien entre lurbain et le rural. Lespace rural a dà ©jà   un caractà ¨re multifonctionnel, il regroupe diffà ©rentes fonctions. Une fonction productive, rà ©sidentielle et de prà ©servation de lenvironnement. La cohabitation de ces diffà ©rentes fonctions gà ©nà ¨re des conflits au sein de cet espace. Une plus grande coordination entre les diffà ©rents acteurs de lespace rural permettrait une meilleure cohabitation des ces usages. La rà ©alisation de diagnostique propre à   chaque territoire ayant pour but la prà ©servation de lagriculture, avec une fonction de production mais aussi crà ©atrice de paysage, respectueuse de lenvironnement, afin de proposer un cadre de vie de qualità ©. Afin de mieux comprendre et analyser ce phà ©nomà ¨ne, nous allons nous intà ©resser dans un premier temps à   la question de la grande à ©chelle, là ©chelle mà ©tropolitaine en se basant sur les projets du grand Paris et plus particulià ¨rement sur là ©tude dAntoine Grumbach. Dans un deuxià ¨me temps nous nous pencherons sur le cas du Plateau de Saclay oà ¹ une à ©tude a à ©tà © menà ©e pour montrer comment sest mis en place un processus de prise en compte de lespace agricole dans la construction paysagà ¨re du rural pà ©riurbain. I. Notre culture face à   la nature 1.1. Historique De tout temps lagriculture a à ©tà © à ©troitement lià ©e à   la ville. Depuis que la ville existe, que lhomme est sà ©dentaire, il produit sa nourriture au plus proche de son lieu de vie. Tant que lhomme est dà ©pourvu de moyens efficaces de dà ©placement pour transporter sa marchandise, les denrà ©es alimentaires sont cultivà ©es aux abords des villes. Là ©talement urbain nest pas un phà ©nomà ¨ne rà ©cent. Dà ¨s le Moyen-à ¢ge, les villes semblent dà ©jà   à ©clatà ©es, limage que lon a dune ville compacte est aussi dà » à   la reprà ©sentation que lon en a fait. Les perspectives dà ©poque sont des reprà ©sentations de villes compactes, oà ¹ les habitations dissà ©minà ©es ne figurent pas. Nayant pas le droit de cità © elles navaient pas non plus le droit de reprà ©sentation. A cette à ©poque la France a une logique de campagne, une multitude de villages distants de 3 à   5 km, distance parcourus actuellement en 5 à   10 minutes donc un rà ©seau quasi parfait qui sà ©tale sur toute le pays.[schà ©ma en à ©toile relation entre les villages] Ce systà ¨me, lià © à   la gà ©ologie, au paysage, aux forà ªts locales est quelque chose de trà ¨s encrà © dans la civilisation franà §aise. Cest le marqueur ADN de la France, un code fort reliant le pays. Tout repose sur cette logique. Nà ©anmoins, les villes importantes de cette à ©poque restent denses, il est donc aisà © den dà ©finir les limites et par consà ©quent celles entre ville et campagne. Au 15à ¨ sià ¨cle, Paris est lune des plus grandes villes dEurope, suivit dAnvers. Une France fà ©odale gouvernà ©e par un roi. Dans sa confà ©rence Lenjeu capital(es), les mà ©tropoles de la grande à ©chelle, le paysagiste nà ©erlandais, Adriaan Geuze, voit le Roi de France comme un agriculteur ayant un pied à   terre à   Paris. Lidà ©e de vivre à   la campagne avec une attache en ville. A la Renaissance, la quantità © de chà ¢teaux et de parcs autour des grandes villes de France explose (chà ¢teau de la Loire) avec un rà ©seau de routes qui converge vers la ville principale. Les Rois entretiennent limage de la campagne, de la nature et cette culture paysanne jusque dans les parcs de leurs chà ¢teaux. Cest une culture de la socià ©tà © agricole. [Parc des chà ¢teaux de la Loire] La rà ©volution est un nouveau tournant dans lhistoire de France. Le symbole mà ªme de Marianne reprà ©sentation de la France de cette à ©poque, est une femme, qui pourrait à ªtre paysanne, venant de la ferme, de la France rurale. [Tableau dEugà ¨ne Delacroix, La Libertà © guidant le Peuple (1830).]On peut donc considà ©rer que les valeurs de notre pays (Libertà ©, Egalità ©, Fraternità ©) puisent leurs racines de cette France là  , cette France rurale. Napolà ©on, comme les rois de France, crà ©Ãƒ © un systà ¨me routier sur tout le continent qui converge vers Paris. Arrive alors la premià ¨re percà ©e dans la conception urbaine à   savoir lextension des Champs-Elysà ©es, avec lArc de Triomphe, cest louverture vers lavenir. Cette action a pour bà »t de changer cette mà ©tropole, de louvrir, de crà ©Ãƒ © des liens et de relier la capitale à   la nature. En 1850, Paris est une ville insalubre, sans aucune condition dhygià ¨ne. Une campagne de restructuration de la capitale est lancà ©e, Paris est donc rà ©gie sous un triple mot dordre: Embellir Circuler Assainir. Lenjeu à ©tait de transformer la mà ©tropole conformà ©ment aux thà ©ories hygià ©nistes pour une meilleure circulation de lair et des hommes. Le Baron Haussmann transforme la capitale en 17 ans de travaux ininterrompus. A la fin de ces travaux Paris a changà © de visage. Sur les grands boulevards Haussmanniens on remarque aussi la prà ©sence importante de la nature. [Prà ©sence de nature sur les boulevards] Ces grandes avenues plantà ©es sont relià ©es directement aux parcs et jardins des Rois, và ©ritables icones de la ville, (jardin du Luxembourg, parc Monceau). Les portes des parcs souvrent, la population y pà ©nà ¨tre : cest une nouvelle ville. La peinture va permettre aussi dintà ©grà © une nouvelle image de la nature. Une nature sublimà ©e. Une nature construite qui va changer la perception mà ªme que lon en avait. Les parcs comme le parc des Buttes-Chaumont ou le parc Monceau peuvent donc se dà ©velopper. A la fin du 19e, dà ©but du 20e sià ¨cle, avec les modifications apportà ©es aux villes et laire industrielle, les relations entre la ville et sa campagne se modifient. Loffre demploi dans les grandes villes augmente, les conditions de vie samà ©liorent et les campagnes sont dà ©sertà ©es, cest lexode rural. Les villes connaissent alors un accroissement dà ©mographique sans prà ©cà ©dent. Les moyens de transports deviennent de plus en plus performants. Les villes sà ©tendent donc trà ¨s rapidement sur lespace rural, estompant ainsi les diffà ©rences entre elles. La population des villes augmente, lagriculture diminue ce qui a pour consà ©quence une perte dautonomie alimentaire. Pour rà ©soudre ce manque il a fallut aller chercher la matià ¨re premià ¨re toujours un peu plus loin. A la fin du XXe sià ¨cle rien na changà ©. Avec la mondialisation, ce phà ©nomà ¨ne na cessà © daugmenter et lagriculture souffre dune mauvaise image. Le discours a donc totalement changà ©. Les paysages agricoles ne sont plus imaginà ©s, comme au 19e sià ¨cle, pouvant faire partie de la ville. La nature nest plus conà §ue comme un à ©là ©ment de paysage urbain quon essaie dintà ©grer à   la ville mais un paysage de campagne que lon cherche à   retrouver lorsque le stress de la ville se fait sentir. Dans les annà ©es 80, la ville souffre de mauvaise rà ©putation. Le manque de logements de qualità ©, laugmentation de la criminalità © ont pour effet de faire fuir les classes sociales les plus aisà ©es et les entreprises vers la pà ©riphà ©rie. Ces dernià ¨res annà ©es le phà ©nomà ¨ne sest renforcà ©, un changement de mentalità ©, une prise de conscience environnementale, encourage de plus en plus durbains à   fuir le stress des villes pour sinstaller à   la campagne. La campagne est vue comme un produit. 1.2. Etat actuel du monde rural Lurbanisation continue des villes daujourdhui grignote chaque jour un peu plus les terres cultivables. [Photo de lurbanisation grignotant les terres cultivables]Laugmentation du prix des terrains constructibles nencourage pas le maintient des actività ©s agricoles et rend lagriculture pà ©riurbaine extrà ªmement fragile. De plus, la cohabitation entre agriculteurs et citadins installà ©s en milieu rural devient de plus en plus source de conflits. En effet, la venue de nouvelles habitations sur lespace rural la rurbanisation se traduit souvent par limplantation de maisons dissà ©minà ©es au milieu de parcelles cultivà ©es. Ce phà ©nomà ¨ne conduit rapidement à   lexplosion des terres cultivables, car pour permettre la mà ©canisation, les parcelles ne doivent pas à ªtre trop petites. Une fois divisà ©es, les parcelles encore en culture, nont plus quune vocation, devenir des champs de là ©gumes ou des pà ©pinià ¨res oà ¹ se multiplie les serres agricoles. La rurbanisation met donc les agriculteurs des zones pà ©riurbaines face à   un choix: vendre leurs terres aux nouveaux arrivants ou cesser leurs actività ©s dà ©levage de bovin pour ne faire que de larboriculture, horticulture ou encore de la production de lait, de volailles ou dÅ“ufs. Face au vieillissement et à   lexode, lespace paysan est menacà ©. Des tensions à ©mergent entre rurbains, citadins ne participant pas à   la vie paysanne, et les paysans locaux. Les nà ©o-ruraux les plus aisà ©s se portent acquà ©reurs dà ¨s la mise en vente du moindre bà ¢timent dans lespace rural. Ce qui, à   lorigine, est un espace de travail napparait plus que comme un espace de loisir. Ce phà ©nomà ¨ne se retrouve dans lensemble des zones rurales proches de grandes agglomà ©rations. Prisonnier dun cadre naturel forgà © depuis des gà ©nà ©rations, le monde paysan appartient dorà ©navant au paysage, celui-là   mà ªme que le touriste citadin achà ¨te. ( Bernard DEZERT- les mutations sociales dans lagriculture urbaine) Le fait davoir dà ©valorisà © lagriculture en la considà ©rant comme un vide, un espace de non-ville à   contribuà © à   son exclusion (de la ville et de notre socià ©tà ©). Il est maintenant indispensable de pensà © lagriculture comme un à ©là ©ment constitutif de la ville. Pour ce faire il faut repenser sa forme mà ªme. Lune des formes considà ©rant la ville comme un ensemble despaces bà ¢ti et non bà ¢ti est la ville archipel nous allons donc nous intà ©resser à   la faà §on dont elle amà ©nage le territoire. Mais avant à §a que signifie le terme de ville archipel ? 2. La ville archipel : un amà ©nagement territorial 2.1. Le concept de ville archipel. La ville archipel pose la question de la forme des relations entre lurbanisation et les espaces de nature. Cette question semble à ªtre une question de paysage puisquelle parle des relations entre les espaces, mais cest avant tout une question damà ©nagement du territoire. Une question dà ©chelle dintervention entre le dà ©veloppement urbain et la protection des milieux ainsi que les relations entre eux. La ville archipel est une forme urbaine capable de conjuguer ville et nature. Pour comprendre ce concept de ville archipel il faut inverser notre faà §on de dà ©finir la ville. Il faut considà ©rer la ville comme un ensemble de centralità ©s intercommunale, avec des espaces bà ¢ti (habitat individuel, collectif ou actività ©) et des espaces non bà ¢ti (naturels, agricoles et forestiers).Ces deux types despaces sont articulà ©s entre eux pour sadaptà © au fonctionnement de ce nouveau territoire en conjuguant facilità © de dà ©placement et proximità © dun cadre de vie agrà ©able dont aspire une majorità © de la population. Dans cette logique comme le dit Bertrand FOLLEA : Le village est à   lagglomà ©ration intercommunale ce que le quartier est à   la ville. Lespace agricole ou naturel fait lui aussi parti intà ©grante de la ville, cest lui qui structure lagglomà ©ration. Il a une fonction serte à ©conomique (de production), à ©cologique (biodiversità ©, gestion hydraulique), mais aussi une fonction sociale (paysage, lieu de dà ©tente, circulation douce). La ville archipel pourrait à ªtre caractà ©risà ©e par des à ®les bà ¢ti denses relià ©es entre elles par des espaces de natures ou agricoles entretenu avec une fonction à ©conomique et sociale. 2.2. La gestion de la nature dans la ville archipel 3. Lexemple de larchipel rennaise 3.1. Rennes Capital de la Bretagne. [] 3.2. Rennes : un espace urbain agricole La mise en place du schà ©ma directeur du district de Rennes, à ©laborà © par un paysagiste et par lagence durbanisme local (Audiar)[1] est considà ©rà ©e comme lune des expà ©riences les plus intà ©ressantes des annà ©es 90. Elle a valeur dexemple dans lamà ©nagement franà §ais en raison de la prà ©servation des territoires agricoles et coulà ©es verte entre les bourgs qui se densifient pour crà ©er des pà ´les secondaires. La question du paysage joue un rà ´le moteur dans là ©laboration de ce schà ©ma directeur. Il a conduit au changement de perception de certain acteur sur leurs territoires. La ville de Rennes na pas toujours à ©tait qualifià © de ville archipel, ce nest quen 2004 que cette expression voit le jour. Isabelle Grudet dà ©montre dans son article Le modà ¨le territorial rennais à   là ©preuve de ses images, limportance des images verbales utilisà ©es pour dà ©crire la ville. Avant 2004 lexpression de ceinture verte est couramment utilisà ©e notamment dans Projet urbain 2015[2]. Ce terme laisse entendre que la ville de Rennes est entourà ©e dun espace vert. Or cet espace nest pas và ©ritablement lisible. Cette expression est dailleurs utilisà ©e en association avec le terme d'anneau et de rocade, le vert et les routes ont fonction de limite et de lien entre les espaces de diffà ©rentes dimensions. Carte de synthà ¨se paysagà ¨re / schà ©ma directeur de 1994 En comparent deux images iconique, la vue de synthà ¨se dun paysagiste et la carte du schà ©ma directeur de 1994 on remarque un à ©loignement de la ville classique que la ceinture verte marquà © par la rocade servait à   maintenir à   lintà ©rieur de mur virtuels, et que la ville archipel a fait exploser. On passe de la ceinture verte reprà ©sentà © par la rocade et un rà ©seau routier qui relie les bourgs à   la ville centre ; a une image de ville territoire oà ¹ les diffà ©rents espaces bà ¢tis sont relià ©s entre eux par les à ©là ©ments constitutifs du paysage. Dans la reprà ©sentation paysagà ¨re du modà ¨le rennais proposà © par le paysagiste, la hià ©rarchie entre ville et campagne disparait. Lespace non bà ¢ti est dà ©composà © en plusieurs couleurs, le bà ¢ti reprà ©sentà © en blanc sestompe, ce territoire oà ¹ bourgs et centre ville semblaient à ªtre relià © par de simple routes raccordà ©es à   une rocade, semble maintenant à ©clatà © sur un territoire indà ©fini dont une campagne dà ©sormais complexe vient crà ©er du lien grà ¢ce aux rivià ¨res, parcs et autres à ©là ©ment du paysage. Lidà ©e de ceinture verte a disparue. Cette espace non bà ¢ti, agricole fait lobjet dune discussion entre paysagiste et à ©lus sur le concept des isolement paysage terme apparaissant dans le schà ©ma directeur de 1994. Retranscription de cette discussion,Tirà ©e des cahiers de LAUA n °11 p.105 Paysagiste : Nous proposons de nouveaux termes pour remplacer des terme qui nous semblent rà ©ducteurs. Nous proposons de remplacer isolement paysage par espace agricole de respiration Elu : (Vice prà ©sident de Rennes Mà ©tropole dà ©là ©guà © à   lenvironnement et aux rà ©serves foncià ¨re) Ce sont les espaces irrà ©ductibles. Le Saint Emilion de Rennes. Mais pour ce terme de respiration je me demande sil ne risque pas dà ªtre mal perà §u. Il semble indiquer que lon ne respire pas dans Rennes-centre. Paysagiste : Cest intà ©ressant Elu : Les espace agricoles, ce sont aussi des gens. Les agriculteurs ne sont pas seulement là   pour faire respirer les gens Paysagiste : Cest un concept fort. Le travail a à ©tà © guidà © par lidà ©e de polycentrisme. Ce systà ¨me est volontariste, il faut des concepts forts pour contrer les processus spontanà ©s. Lexpression isolements paysage nest pas positive. Elu : Je suis daccord pour enlever isolement paysage mais lagriculture, je prà ©fà ¨re espace agricole de construction Paysagiste : Oui, il faut rà ©flà ©chir sur ce thà ¨me. Elu (vice-prà ©sident de Rennes Mà ©tropole dà ©là ©guà © aux formes urbaines): Remplacer isolement paysage par espace de respiration est une bonne idà ©e, mais il faut la revoir Elu : Cest bien, on est arrivà © à   hià ©rarchiser les choses Mais il y a quand mà ªme ce truc de la respiration Moi, je dirais simplement agriculture pà ©riurbaine. Paysagiste : Oui, mais à   quoi renvoie le terme de pà ©riurbain Elu (Vice prà ©sident de Rennes Mà ©tropole dà ©là ©guà © à   lenvironnement et aux rà ©serves foncià ¨re) : Et pourquoi pas espace agricole urbain. Cela permet de ne pas faire apparaà ®tre les agriculteurs comme les derniers des Mohicans Lexpression vient dapparaà ®tre. Elle sera là ©gà ¨rement modifià ©e par un à ©lu, pour donnà ©e le terme final d'espace urbain agricole. Selon un à ©lu ce terme a la capacità © de crà ©er un choc, aussi bien chez les agriculteurs que chez les urbains, qui pourrait pousser à   laction. En effet cette espace agricole urbain participe à   là ©conomie et à   lattractività © du Pays de Rennes. Il est entretenu par 1400 exploitations agricoles qui mettent en valeur 63 000 ha de surfaces agricoles. En choisissant le terme de ville archipel les à ©lus ont fait le choix dun amà ©nagement du territoire qui laisse une large place à   lespace agricole et naturel entre les diffà ©rents pà ´les durbanisations. Cette gestion du territoire, qui place lagriculture au cÅ“ur de la ville, approuvà © et confortà © par le SCoT permet damà ©liorer le cadre de vie des habitants avec la prà ©sence dune campagne bocagà ¨re à   proximità ©, travaillà ©e par lagriculture. Mais la proximità © de la ville et de lespace agricole ajoute des contraintes qui peuvent fragiliser leur à ©quilibre à ©conomique, laugmentation du foncier produit par une ville dynamique, la cohabitation conflictuel entre citadin et agriculteurs et les dà ©placements difficiles En revanche cette proximità © de la ville permet à   lagriculture de se diversifier en fournissant un marchà © local et en proposant des services. En considà ©rant comme ville lespace bà ¢ti et lespace non-bà ¢ti, les à ©lus se doivent de travaillà ©s en à ©troite collaboration avec les agriculteurs, afin doffrir un meilleur cadre de vie permettant le dà ©veloppement de cette à ©conomie. Dans cette optique, lassociation partenariale entre agglomà ©ration et la chambre dagriculture a permis la crà ©ation de lassociation Terre en ville oà ¹ sà ©change les expà ©riences sur les espaces agricoles pà ©riurbains franà §ais. 3.3. Le programme local de lagriculture, pour une agriculture en cÅ“ur darchipel. En 2008, un accord-cadre est passà © entre la chambre dagriculture, la SAFER Bretagne, Rennes Mà ©tropole et le Pays de Rennes pour coordonner les actions et dà ©finir les conditions de leur mise en Å“uvre. Le programme local de lagriculture soumet cinq thà ¨mes de travail : Echanger autour dun observatoire de lagriculture. Concilier urbanisme, foncier et agriculture Confortà © le bocage dans ses multiples rà ´les Sadapter au nouveau contexte à ©nergà ©tique et climatique Renfoncer les liens entre les citadins et les agriculteurs. La mise en place dun observatoire de lagriculture du Pays de Rennes, qui publiera un bulletin chaque annà ©e a pour rà ´le de faire partager une vision actualisà ©e de la dynamique agricole du territoire entre les diffà ©rents acteurs agricoles et territoriaux. Les thà ¨mes traità ©s par le programme local de lAgriculture sont : foncier et urbanisme, environnement, lien citadins-agriculture. Pour que la ville archipel fonctionne, il faut que lactività © agricole soit forte. Des actions foncià ¨res sont misent en place pour maintenir cette actività © et permettre une meilleur lisibilità © de lespace rà ©servà © à   lagriculture dans les projets urbains. En 2005 la SAFER Bretagne et Rennes Mà ©tropole passent une convention visant une politique danticipation foncià ¨re et de recherche des terres de compensation pour les exploitants agricoles dont les terres sont rà ©cupà ©rà ©es par les projets urbains. Grace à   ces compensations il est possible de regrouper les parcelles autour des bà ¢timents agricoles, se qui amà ©liore les performances à ©conomique et à ©nergà ©tique des exploitations, en limitant les dà ©placements dengin, en rationnalisant les systà ¨mes de fourrage Lagriculture doit à ªtre traità © dans les PLU comme une priorità © car cest elle qui structure lespace communal. Des rà ©flexions sur la prise en compte de lagriculture dans les PLU ont à ©taient engagà ©es, elles dà ©boucheront sur la mise en place de nouvelles mà ©thodes et la rà ©daction de recommandations à   lattention des municipalità ©s, des techniciens et urbanistes ainsi que des acteurs agricoles. La proximità © de la ville et des actività ©s agricoles pose quelques problà ¨mes, notamment pour des questions de dà ©placements, lagriculture provoque des dà ©placements de matià ¨re et dengins agricole qui on du mal à   cohabiter avec la circulation urbaine. Les plans communaux de dà ©placement des PLU ont en charge didentifier les secteurs oà ¹ le dà ©placement dengin agricole est le plus problà ©matique. Ce qui permet aux communes dintà ©grer dans leurs projets des solutions ou des alternatives. Le paysage rennais se caractà ©rise par la prà ©sence de bocages. Si ces à ©là ©ment du paysage font dà ©sormais partie du patrimoine paysagà © de la rà ©gion, leurs rà ´les est multiples. Ils permettent la rà ©gulation des eaux, prà ©servent la biodiversità ©, offre de lombre pour les troupeaux, ont un rà ´le agronomique et peuvent à ªtre perà §u comme à ©nergie renouvelable. De plus les cheminements largement accessibles offrent aux citadins des espaces de dà ©tente à   la campagne, et permet ainsi de limiter le dà ©membrement des parcelles agricoles pour des zones de loisirs. Mais lentretient de ces haies revient essentiellement aux agriculteurs et les charges pour cette entretient deviennent de plus en plus lourdes du fait de lagrandissement des parcelles. Le programme local de lagriculture prose de redonnà © de la valeur à ©conomique à   lentretient moderne du bocage. Afin de sadapter au nouveau contexte à ©nergà ©tique et climatique, Rennes-Mà ©tropole met en place son plan à ©nergie-climat pour à ©tudier les moyens de rà ©duire la production de gaz à   effet de serre. En effet lagriculture et lagroalimentaire est extrà ªmement consommatrice dà ©nergies fossiles il est donc essentiel de rà ©flà ©chir à   des solutions pour limiter cette consommation, la mise en place dà ©nergie renouvelable tel que la biomasse, là ©olien ou le solaire. De plus lentretient des haies bocagà ¨res peut permettre là ©mergence dune filià ¨re bois-à ©nergie. Une filià ¨re en dà ©veloppement dans la rà ©gion tant chez les particuliers que pour les à ©quipements publics. Lagriculture a la charge des espaces agricoles et naturels de la ville archipel. Se sont les agriculteurs qui faà §onnent lespace et le cadre de vie. Malgrà © limportance de lagriculture pour le dà ©veloppement de la mà ©tropole, les agriculteurs ne sont plus reconnus. Les citadins qui ont le dà ©sir de cette campagne connaissent mal les actività ©s agricoles daujourdhui. Ils ne perà §oivent que les aspects nà ©gatifs de la profession et les gà ªnes engendrà ©es. Mais il en va de mà ªme pour les agriculteurs qui ne comprennent pas forcà ©ment les enjeux urbains. Pour que lagriculture soit và ©ritablement intà ©grà ©e à   la ville il faut quelle soit comprise de tous et pour à §a un travail dinformation doit à ªtre fait. Ce devoir dinformation doit se faire pour le grand public, mais aussi entre les diffà ©rents acteurs (à ©lus locaux, agriculteurs, techniciens) Pour faire passà © le message au plus grand nombre, le Pays de Rennes lance un à ©comusà ©e oà ¹ lon retrouve la mà ©moire rural du pays de Rennes, mais qui surtout pose les questions sur là ©volution de lagriculture local contemporaine. Depuis dà ©jà   quelque temps, le regain dintà ©rà ªt pour une agriculture seine, permet le dà ©veloppement ou le redà ©veloppement des circuits courts comme le marchà © traditionnel mais aussi des mà ©thodes plus innovantes tel la vente de panier, la cueillette à   la ferme ou encore les AMAP (association pour le maintient dune agriculture paysanne), la vente par internet Ces nouvelles filià ¨res permettent de rapprocher lagriculteur du consommateur, mais aussi donnà ©e la possibilità © aux agriculteurs de se diversifier en proposant de nouvelles actività © comme laccueil à   la ferme, lagrotourisme, les fermes pà ©dagogiques, mais aussi de proposà © des services comme lentretient des espace naturels ou des chemins de randonnà ©es, et en collaboration avec la collectività © pour le co-compostage ou la gestion des boues dà ©puration. 3.4. Les AMAP Carte des AMAP du pays de Rennes Voila ce que prà ©conisà © en 2008 le Programme local de lagriculture. Mais comment se sont traduites ces recommandations dans les projets urbains de la mà ©tropole rennaise ? Afin dà ©tudier cette question nous allons nous pencher sur deux projets rà ©alisà ©s à   Rennes a savoir la ZAC de la Courouze et celle de Beauregard, ainsi que dans la ville de Saint-Jacques-de-la-lande. 4. Exemples de projets rennais 4.1. Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande est une commune à   cinq kilomà ¨tres des premiers faubourgs de Rennes. Cest au centre de la commune que se construit une nouvelle ville de 8 000 habitants. Un projet qui pourrait surprendre à   une à ©poque oà ¹ lextension des pà ©riphà ©ries se ralentie fortement. Cette ville a longtemps à ©chappà ©e à   lurbanisation du fait de la prà ©sence sur son territoire de nombreuses installations militaires. Le maire, Daniel Delaveau a toujours fait preuve de dà ©termination pour mener son projet à   terme. Des les annà ©es 70 il commence lacquisition progressive de tous les terrains du secteur. Durant 7 ans il se bat avec les services de lEtat et du dà ©partement pour que la route de Redon ( 2 fois 2 voies ) ne soit pas une voies expresse mais un boulevard urbain reliant un nouveau quartier. Il pose un point dhonneur à   la conservation du paysage qui fabrique sa ville, en souhaitant la prà ©servation dun atout majeur du site, les prairies bocagà ¨res. En 1992 la ville lance un concours durbanisme pour le nouveau centre de Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande. Il est remportà © par Jean-Pierre Pranlas-Descours en association avec les paysagistes Christophe Delmar et Anne-Sylvie Bruel. En 1994 le projet est formalisà © dans le plan directeur gà ©nà ©ral qui fixe les principes urbains, paysagà ©s et architecturaux. Le paysage dans lequel simplante le nouveau centre ville de Saint-Jacques-de-la-Lande nest pas des plus remarquables, il ne possà ¨de pas và ©ritablement dà ©là ©ments marquant le paysage. Une topographie douce, sans trop daccident, ni de dà ©nivelà ©. Et pourtant de toutes les communes environnantes cest elle qui a le mieux conservà © sont hà ©ritage rural, des grandes à ©tendues herbeuses en là ©gà ¨re pente, des haies bocagà ¨re pour dà ©limiter les anciennes proprià ©tà ©s des à ©là ©ments peut perceptibles mais qui valorisà ©es peuvent permettre dancrer le nouveau quartier dans son territoire.[] 4.2. La ZAC de la Courrouze 4.3. La ZAC Beauregard 5. Autres exemples 5.1. Lexemple de plateau de Saclay. 5.1.1- Historique du plateau de Saclay. Le plateau de Saclay a connu de nombreux changements au cours de son histoire. Avant le XVIIe sià ¨cle le plateau nà ©tait quune immense plaine marà ©cageuse. Ces marà ©cages limitaient lagriculture à   une pratique traditionnelle et anarchique. A la fin du XVIIe sià ¨cle, les à ©tangs infà ©rieurs du plateau de Saclay ont servi à   une partie de lalimentation en eau du chà ¢teau de Versailles. Depuis cette à ©poque les eaux pluviales du plateau sont drainà ©es en son centre dans un à ©tang situà © entre Saclay et Villeras. Suite à   ce rà ©seau de drainage le plateau devient, un sià ¨cle plus tard, parmi les plus fertiles de la rà ©gion parisienne et permet une agriculture plus intensive. On y produisait de lavoine, du seigle, de lorge et du blà © sur une surface de mille trois cent cinquante hectares destinà © exclusivement au seul marchà © parisien. Lagriculture sintensifient et se diversifient, elle se modernise jusquà   devenir progressivement une agriculture dite scientifique. De plus en plus dorganismes de recherche agronomique sinstallent sur le plateau, elles aident les agriculteurs à   acquà ©rir des connaissances et à   amà ©liorer leur rendement. Mais limplantation sur le plateau de Saclay de ces nombreux organismes accà ©là ¨re son urbanisation de faà §on exponentielle. Le plateau nest plus reconnu pour ses excellentes terres cultivables, mais devient lun des cinq premiers centres denvergure europà ©enne frà ©quentà © par plus de trente mille physiciens, chercheurs ou autres ingà ©nieurs. Au cours du XXe sià ¨cle, le plateau de Saclay perd sa dimension paysagà ¨re et apparaà ®t comme une zone rurale sans grand intà ©rà ªt. Les auteurs de là ©poque ny voient quune vaste à ©tendu monotone et austà ¨re dominà ©e par une agriculture moderne et productive dà ©pourvu de tout pittoresque. Depuis 1945, lotissements, installations industrielles, aà ©rodromes continuent à   sà ©tendre sur dexcellentes terres à   culture. Un des exemples les plus caractà ©ristiques est celui du Centre de recherche de Saclay ; on a sacrifià © là   des terres qui comptaient parmi les meilleures de la banlieue parisienne pour à ©courter les dà ©placements de techniciens habitant Paris. (M. Phillipponneau) Le plateau de Saclay est dà ©sormais caractà ©risà © par son centre dà ©tude nuclà ©aire, il devient le plateau de la matià ¨re grise, un haut lieu de la science franà §aise. Il est dà ©sormais cà ©là ¨bre pour ces à ©quipements scientifiques de pointes. Jusqua la fin des annà ©es soixante-dix ces à ©quipements scientifique à ©taient perà §ues positivement par le grand public cette actività © permis douvrir le plateau de Saclay sur lextà ©rieur et le fit reconnaitre. Mais il à ©tait essentiellement connu pour cette actività © et son paysage à ©tait perà §u comme un pa